Posts
Bodhi Journal 2009; 14.
APPLIED BUDDHISM:
PHENOMENAL AND MENTAL CULTIVATION
ANKUR BARUA, DIPAK KUMAR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Hong Kong, 2009
Communication Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,
Salt Lake City, Sector-2,
Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)
APPLIED BUDDHISM:
PHENOMENAL AND MENTAL CULTIVATION
Abstract
In Buddhist perspective, the phenomenal and mental cultivations refer to the successful eradication of greed, hatred and delusion. There is also no cultivation without discipline, concentration and wisdom. Although the mind is the dominant factor of all, yet only through the body and the mouth can its activities be manifested. Thus, all the three aspects are indivisible and inseparable from one another. Since, the body and the mind are correlated and inseparable from each other, the cultivation of the one aspect necessarily involves that of the other.
Key words: Cultivation, Integration, Phenomenal, Mental, Applied, Buddhism.
APPLIED BUDDHISM:
PHENOMENAL AND MENTAL CULTIVATION
Introduction
The Phenomenal and mental cultivation in Buddhist perspective are numerous and diversified. Some of the common practices include sutra-reading, ritual worship, abundant offering and charitable practices, strict observance of the Canons of Discipline, Name-reciting, Ch'an Meditation, taking a journey to visit venerable monks living in secluded places and so forth. But by practicing some of these activities out of mere faith and following them routinely and meticulously in our day to day life will not lead to salvation or liberation from suffering. We must make every effort to understand the inner meanings of the teachings of the Buddha. The Buddha wanted to live through his teachings or the Dhamma. Thus, idol worship, offerings and rituals were never advocated by the Buddha and he never encouraged them either during his lifetime.1,2,3
The first and foremost priority in Buddhism is the true interpretations of the Dhamma. The faith and practice are secondary and are not mandatory. The success to end suffering lies in the internalization of the teachings of the Buddha. We must train and retrain our bodies, mouths and minds to attain grand-mirror-like wisdom in order to visualize all the phenomena as truly as they are.4
Integration of Phenomenal and Mental Cultivation
In Buddhism, cultivation is classified into two aspects – (1) the phenomenal aspect of cultivation such as sutra-reading, ceremonial worship etc. which are referred as visible outward cultivation and (2) the mental aspect of cultivation which is subtle intangible inward cultivation such as self-introspection and looking into the mind. Since, the body and the mind are correlated and inseparable from each other, the cultivation of the one aspect necessarily involves that of the other. So, in the mental aspect there is the phenomenal and in the phenomenal aspect there is the mental. The better we understand the principle of cultivation, more serious would be our cultivation. In other words, more serious our cultivation, the better is our understanding of the principle. From this it may be seen that principle and practice should go together and there is no need to lean against one and neglect the other. As long as we can integrate the two aspects of cultivation harmoniously and are always mindful of the Law of Karma operating the process of cause and effect at all times.1,3,4
Applied Buddhism in Phenomenal and Mental Cultivation2,3,5
At the initial stage, we can start leaning the Buddhist teachings without developing any faith or belief at the beginning or performing any Buddhist rituals. Once, we understand the true meanings of Buddhist teachings and able to relate them to our own life, then automatically we shall start applying them in our daily practice.
Believe and faith in Buddhism would develop gradually as our mind starts accepting the Dhamma. But we should always remember that blind faith without proper interpretation of Dhamma is never encouraged in Buddhism. The teachings of the Buddha should always be accepted with critical evaluation and analytical reasoning for our true understandings.
Buddhism should be adopted and applied in daily practice as a philosophical, Psychological and moral foundation of our society and a way of life rather than a religion. As we often present Buddhism wrapped up in a cover of religion, the followers of other religious faiths often feel uncomfortable to learn Buddhism. They often suffer from a feeling of guilt and injustice in having wrong notion of deceiving their own religion and accepting another new one. As a result, some religious communities still possess a hostile attitude towards Buddhism.
Eradication of Three Poisons1,4,5
In Buddhist perspective, the phenomenal and mental cultivations refer to the successful eradication of greed, hatred and delusion. These are the three poisons which are the main cause for our attachments either to material forms or dogmatic views. It is the attachment of mind to material forms or dogmatic views that is responsible for all our sufferings in life.
So, all the Buddhist teachings are directed towards achieving the goal of eradication of the three poisons of greed, hatred and delusion. However, the phenomenal and mental cultivation in Buddhism advocates intensive and incessant practice. It is only by cultivating on regular and repeated occasions that we could advance nearer the goal of Enlightenment.
If someone argues against the phenomenal and mental cultivations, he would be unaware of his own greed, hatred, stupidity, passions, prejudices and subjective thoughts and also ignorant of the objective reality of those phenomena. He would be as foolish as a patient in serious condition refusing to take medical treatment.
Purification of the Activities Involving Body, Mouth and Mind
All human activities generally involve the use of three aspects of the human anatomy as the body, mouth and mind. Although the mind is the dominant factor of all, yet only through the body and the mouth can its activities be manifested. Thus, all the three aspects are indivisible and inseparable from one another. This is same as the case of wave which is inseparable from water and itself is also water. So, illusion is also inseparable from truth. All activities, including the cultivation of mind, are manifestations of the True Nature. It is also appropriate to refer that all Dhammas are related to the cultivation of the True Nature. Hence, more the cultivation more is the manifestation of the True Nature and more the benefits of mankind.1,4,5
Practice of Discipline, Concentration and Wisdom
The phenomenal and mental faculties need to be trained and retrained to become pure and stainless. This is known as Mental Purification. In Buddhism there is no cultivation without discipline, concentration and wisdom. There is no Dhamma without discipline, concentration and wisdom. These three-fold studies are the basic tenet for learning and cultivating Buddhism. When the phenomenal and mental faculties are morally restrained, it is Discipline. When the phenomenal and mental faculties are calm and still, it is Concentration. When the phenomenal and mental faculties illuminate unobtrusively and freely, it is Wisdom.1,4
Discipline, Concentration and Wisdom are the triple functions inherent in the True Nature. In other words, these are the three aspects of the same thing. The fundamental objective of cultivation is to orient the body, mouth and mind to the True Nature by evoking these three functions.1,4
It is only by cultivating Buddhism in accordance with this fundamental principle that the beneficial effects of turning the mind from defilement into purity, from chaos into stability and from delusion into understanding may be achieved. We should finally realize that there is neither purity nor impurity; neither motion nor stillness; neither wisdom nor attainment of any sort. This is the fundamental expression of the True Nature.1,4
Conclusion
In Buddhist perspective, the phenomenal and mental cultivations refer to the successful eradication of greed, hatred and delusion. Although the mind is the dominant factor of all, yet only through the body and the mouth can its activities be manifested. Thus, all the three aspects are indivisible and inseparable from one another. Since, the body and the mind are correlated and inseparable from each other, the cultivation of the one aspect necessarily involves that of the other. So, in the mental aspect there is the phenomenal and in the phenomenal aspect there is the mental. In Buddhism there is also no cultivation without discipline, concentration and wisdom.1,4
With this background of the benefits of phenomenal and mental cultivations, it is now time to send a clear message to everyone for the eradication of all unwarranted apprehensions related to Buddhism. It has to be borne in mind that Buddhism never interferes with the socio-cultural or religious practices of any community. So, any person belonging to any other religious community can feel free to learn Buddhism and apply the Buddhist teachings in his daily life to end suffering, without changing his own religion or getting converted into Buddhism.2,3,5
References
1. Manabu, W. 2008. Self-Cultivation and the Body in Religious Traditions: From the Point of View of the History of Religions. Shūkyō kenkyū. Japan: Annual Convention of the Japanese Association for Religious Studies No66. 81(355):98.
2. Barua, A., Basilio, M.A. 2009. Applied Buddhism in Modern Science: Episode 1. Hong Kong: Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen & Unibook Publications.
3. Barua, A., Testerman, N., Basilio, M.A. 2009. Applied Buddhism the Foundation of Our True Understanding. Hong Kong: Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen & Unibook Publications.
4. Chatterjee, A.K. 1975. The Yogācāra Idealism. Varnasi, India: Bhargava Bhushan Press, the Banaras Hindu University Press.
5. Barua, D.K. 2005. Environment & Human Resources: Buddhist Approaches. Applied Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern Perspectives. . Varanasi, India: Centre for Buddhist Studies, Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies, Benaras Hindu University: 90-6.
Saturday, January 9, 2010
DEVELOP MIRROR-LIKE WISDOM
DEVELOP MIRROR-LIKE WISDOM
ANKUR BARUA, N. TESTERMAN, M.A. BASILIO
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Hong Kong, 2009
Communication Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,
Salt Lake City, Sector-2,
Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)
DEVELOP MIRROR-LIKE WISDOM
Abstarct
The Yogācāra school of Buddhist thought was founded by the two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu in the fifth century. The most famous innovation of the Yogācāra School was the doctrine of eight consciousnesses and it upheld the concept that consciousness (vijñāna) is real, but its objects of constructions are unreal. The key emphasis of Yogācāra is on insight meditation which is actually considered to be a means of abandoning delusions about the self and about the world. When the storehouse consciousness is finally transformed into the grand-mirror-like wisdom, it reflects the entire universe without distortion. This wisdom can perceive many objects accurately and simultaneously.
Key Words: Mind, Manas, Ālaya, Consciousness, Insight, Meditation.
DEVELOP MIRROR-LIKE WISDOM
Introduction
The Yogācāra school of Buddhist thought was founded by the two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu in the fifth century. Yogācāra was a synthesis created in response to all existing schools of Buddhism during the third century BC. Yogācāra extracted the common teachings from all the Buddhist traditions and made an attempt to resolve the problems that most of them were facing. The key epistemological and metaphysical insights of Yogācāra evolved from the common Buddhist belief that knowledge comes only from the senses (vijnapti). With a new insight, Yogācāra proposed that the mind, itself, was an aspect of vijnapti.1,2,3,4
Asanga further recognized that though the mind can sense its own objects, which are known as thoughts (apperception), but it cannot verify its own interpretation. As the senses are constantly misinterpreted, our thoughts (apperceptions) are also misinterpreted in the same way. These misconceptions are instinctive and nearly universal because they are caused by the desires, fears and anxieties that come with animal survival. This results in an automatic assumption of substance for self and objects (atman and dharma) which are created to suppress our fears.1,3,4,5
Various Types of Consciousness in Yogācāra
The most famous innovation of the Yogācāra School was the doctrine of eight consciousnesses. Early Buddhism and Abhidhamma described six consciousnesses, each produced by the contact between its specific sense organ and a corresponding sense object. Thus, when a functioning eye comes into contact with a color or shape, visual consciousness is produced. Consciousness does not create the sensory sphere, but is an effect of the interaction of a sense organ and its true object. If an eye does not function but an object is present, visual consciousness does not arise. The same is true if a functional eye fails to encounter a visual object.5,6,7,8,9
Arising of consciousness is dependent on sensation. There are altogether six sense organs (eye, ear, nose, mouth, body, and mind) which interact with their respective sensory object domains like visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, and mental spheres. Here, the mind is considered to be another sense organ as it functions like the other senses. It involves the activity of a sense organ (manas), its domain (mano-dhātu) and the resulting consciousness (mano-vijñāna). Each domain is discrete and function independent of the other. Hence, the deaf can see and the blind can hear. Objects are also specific to their domain and the same is true of the consciousnesses like the visual consciousness is entirely distinct from auditory consciousness. There are six distinct types of consciousness namely, the visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile and mental consciousness.5,6,7,8,9
The six sense organs, six sense object domains and six resulting consciousnesses comprise our eighteen components of experience and are known as the eighteen dhātus. According to Buddhism, these eighteen dhātus are the comprehensive sensorium of everything in the universe.6,7,8,9
As Abhidhamma grew more complex, disputes intensified between different Buddhist schools along a range of issues. In order to avoid the idea of a permanent self, Buddhists said citta is momentary. Since a new citta apperceives a new cognitive field each moment, the apparent continuity of mental states was explained causally by claiming each citta, in the moment it ceased, also acted as cause for the arising of its successor. This was fine for continuous perceptions and thought processes, but difficulties arose since Buddhists identified a number of situations in which no citta at all was present or operative, such as deep sleep, unconsciousness, and certain meditative conditions explicitly defined as devoid of citta (āsaṃjñī-samāpatti, nirodha-samāpatti). So, the controversial questions were: from where does consciousness reemerge after deep sleep? How does consciousness begin in a new life? The various Buddhist attempts to answer these questions led to more difficulties and disputes. For Yogācāra the most important problems revolved around questions of causality and consciousness.6,7,8,9
Yogācārins responded by rearranging the tripartite structure of the mental level of the eighteen dhātus into three novel types of consciousnesses. Mano-vijñāna (empirical consciousness) became the sixth consciousness processing the cognitive content of the five senses as well as mental objects (thoughts, ideas). Manas became the seventh consciousness, which was primarily obsessed with various aspects and notions of "self". Hence, it was called "defiled manas" (kliṣṭa-manas). The eighth consciousness, ālaya-vijñāna also known as "warehouse consciousness," was totally novel.6,7,8,9
Four Wisdoms from Eight Consciousnesses7,8,9
(1) The first five perceptual consciousnesses are transformed into the Wisdom of Successful Performance. This wisdom is characterized by pure and unimpeded functioning (no attachment or distortion) in its relation to the (sense) organs and their objects.
(2) The sixth consciousness is the perceptual and cognitive processing center. It is transformed into the Wisdom of Wonderful Contemplation which has two aspects corresponding to understanding of the “emptiness of self” and that of the “emptiness of Dhammas”.
(3) The seventh consciousness defiles the first six consciousnesses with self and self-related afflictions. It is transformed into the Wisdom of Equality which understands the nature of the equality of self and of all other beings.
(4) The eighth, the storehouse consciousness, is transformed into the grand-mirror-like wisdom. This wisdom reflects the entire universe without distortion. Like mirror can reflect many objects simultaneously, the wisdom can perceive many objects accurately and simultaneously. This can be achieved by proper transformation of the Ālaya-vijñāna to this wisdom and is considered to be the state of the Buddhahood.
A similar principle is applied in the modern telescopes for observing the universe. The lens of a modern telescope is replaced by a mirror in order to avoid chromatic aberrations. Mirror of the telescope reflects the true image of the space and universe.
Conclusion
In Yogācāra concept, true knowledge begins when consciousness ends. Thus, “Enlightenment” is considered as the act of bringing the eight consciousnesses to an end and replacing them with enlightened cognitive abilities (jñāna). Here, the sixth consciousness (Manas) becomes the immediate cognition of equality (samatā-jñāna) by equalizing self and other. When the Warehouse Consciousness finally ceases it is replaced by the Great Mirror Cognition (Mahādarśa-jñāna) that sees and reflects things truly as they are (yathā-bhūtam).5,6,8
Thus, the grasper-grasped relationship ceases and the mind projects the things impartially without exclusion, prejudice, anticipation, attachment, or distortion. These "purified" cognitions remove the self-bias, prejudice and obstructions that had previously prevented a person from perceiving beyond his selfish consciousness. Since enlightened cognition is non-conceptual, its objects cannot be described. So, the Yogācāra School could not provide any description regarding the outcome of these types of enlightened cognitions except for referring these as 'pure' (of imaginative constructions).3,5,8
References
1. Keenan, J.P. 1988. Buddhist Yogācāra Philosophy as Ancilla Theologiae. Japanese Religions 15: 36.
2. Pensgard, D. 2006. Yogācāra Buddhism: A sympathetic description and suggestion for use in Western theology and philosophy of religion. JSRI 15:94-103.
3. Lusthaus, D. 2002. Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogācāra Buddhism and the Ch’eng Wei-shih lun. New York: Routledge Curzon.
4. Suzuki, D.T. 1998. Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra. New Delhi: India Munshiram Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd.
5. Chatterjee, A.K. 1975. The Yogācāra Idealism. Varnasi, India: Bhargava Bhushan Press, the Banaras Hindu University Press.
6. Tripathi, C.L.1972. The Problem of Knowledge in Yogācāra Buddhism. Varnasi, India: Bharat-Bharati Press.
7. King, R.1994. Early Yogācāra and its relationship with the Madhyamika school. Philosophy East & West 44: 659.
8. King, R. 1998. Vijnaptimatrata and the Abhidhamma context of early Yogācāra. Asian Philosophy 8(1): 5.
9. Yin, J. 2009. Yogācāra school and Faxiang school. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies, the University of Hong Kong.
ANKUR BARUA, N. TESTERMAN, M.A. BASILIO
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Hong Kong, 2009
Communication Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,
Salt Lake City, Sector-2,
Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)
DEVELOP MIRROR-LIKE WISDOM
Abstarct
The Yogācāra school of Buddhist thought was founded by the two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu in the fifth century. The most famous innovation of the Yogācāra School was the doctrine of eight consciousnesses and it upheld the concept that consciousness (vijñāna) is real, but its objects of constructions are unreal. The key emphasis of Yogācāra is on insight meditation which is actually considered to be a means of abandoning delusions about the self and about the world. When the storehouse consciousness is finally transformed into the grand-mirror-like wisdom, it reflects the entire universe without distortion. This wisdom can perceive many objects accurately and simultaneously.
Key Words: Mind, Manas, Ālaya, Consciousness, Insight, Meditation.
DEVELOP MIRROR-LIKE WISDOM
Introduction
The Yogācāra school of Buddhist thought was founded by the two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu in the fifth century. Yogācāra was a synthesis created in response to all existing schools of Buddhism during the third century BC. Yogācāra extracted the common teachings from all the Buddhist traditions and made an attempt to resolve the problems that most of them were facing. The key epistemological and metaphysical insights of Yogācāra evolved from the common Buddhist belief that knowledge comes only from the senses (vijnapti). With a new insight, Yogācāra proposed that the mind, itself, was an aspect of vijnapti.1,2,3,4
Asanga further recognized that though the mind can sense its own objects, which are known as thoughts (apperception), but it cannot verify its own interpretation. As the senses are constantly misinterpreted, our thoughts (apperceptions) are also misinterpreted in the same way. These misconceptions are instinctive and nearly universal because they are caused by the desires, fears and anxieties that come with animal survival. This results in an automatic assumption of substance for self and objects (atman and dharma) which are created to suppress our fears.1,3,4,5
Various Types of Consciousness in Yogācāra
The most famous innovation of the Yogācāra School was the doctrine of eight consciousnesses. Early Buddhism and Abhidhamma described six consciousnesses, each produced by the contact between its specific sense organ and a corresponding sense object. Thus, when a functioning eye comes into contact with a color or shape, visual consciousness is produced. Consciousness does not create the sensory sphere, but is an effect of the interaction of a sense organ and its true object. If an eye does not function but an object is present, visual consciousness does not arise. The same is true if a functional eye fails to encounter a visual object.5,6,7,8,9
Arising of consciousness is dependent on sensation. There are altogether six sense organs (eye, ear, nose, mouth, body, and mind) which interact with their respective sensory object domains like visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, and mental spheres. Here, the mind is considered to be another sense organ as it functions like the other senses. It involves the activity of a sense organ (manas), its domain (mano-dhātu) and the resulting consciousness (mano-vijñāna). Each domain is discrete and function independent of the other. Hence, the deaf can see and the blind can hear. Objects are also specific to their domain and the same is true of the consciousnesses like the visual consciousness is entirely distinct from auditory consciousness. There are six distinct types of consciousness namely, the visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile and mental consciousness.5,6,7,8,9
The six sense organs, six sense object domains and six resulting consciousnesses comprise our eighteen components of experience and are known as the eighteen dhātus. According to Buddhism, these eighteen dhātus are the comprehensive sensorium of everything in the universe.6,7,8,9
As Abhidhamma grew more complex, disputes intensified between different Buddhist schools along a range of issues. In order to avoid the idea of a permanent self, Buddhists said citta is momentary. Since a new citta apperceives a new cognitive field each moment, the apparent continuity of mental states was explained causally by claiming each citta, in the moment it ceased, also acted as cause for the arising of its successor. This was fine for continuous perceptions and thought processes, but difficulties arose since Buddhists identified a number of situations in which no citta at all was present or operative, such as deep sleep, unconsciousness, and certain meditative conditions explicitly defined as devoid of citta (āsaṃjñī-samāpatti, nirodha-samāpatti). So, the controversial questions were: from where does consciousness reemerge after deep sleep? How does consciousness begin in a new life? The various Buddhist attempts to answer these questions led to more difficulties and disputes. For Yogācāra the most important problems revolved around questions of causality and consciousness.6,7,8,9
Yogācārins responded by rearranging the tripartite structure of the mental level of the eighteen dhātus into three novel types of consciousnesses. Mano-vijñāna (empirical consciousness) became the sixth consciousness processing the cognitive content of the five senses as well as mental objects (thoughts, ideas). Manas became the seventh consciousness, which was primarily obsessed with various aspects and notions of "self". Hence, it was called "defiled manas" (kliṣṭa-manas). The eighth consciousness, ālaya-vijñāna also known as "warehouse consciousness," was totally novel.6,7,8,9
Four Wisdoms from Eight Consciousnesses7,8,9
(1) The first five perceptual consciousnesses are transformed into the Wisdom of Successful Performance. This wisdom is characterized by pure and unimpeded functioning (no attachment or distortion) in its relation to the (sense) organs and their objects.
(2) The sixth consciousness is the perceptual and cognitive processing center. It is transformed into the Wisdom of Wonderful Contemplation which has two aspects corresponding to understanding of the “emptiness of self” and that of the “emptiness of Dhammas”.
(3) The seventh consciousness defiles the first six consciousnesses with self and self-related afflictions. It is transformed into the Wisdom of Equality which understands the nature of the equality of self and of all other beings.
(4) The eighth, the storehouse consciousness, is transformed into the grand-mirror-like wisdom. This wisdom reflects the entire universe without distortion. Like mirror can reflect many objects simultaneously, the wisdom can perceive many objects accurately and simultaneously. This can be achieved by proper transformation of the Ālaya-vijñāna to this wisdom and is considered to be the state of the Buddhahood.
A similar principle is applied in the modern telescopes for observing the universe. The lens of a modern telescope is replaced by a mirror in order to avoid chromatic aberrations. Mirror of the telescope reflects the true image of the space and universe.
Conclusion
In Yogācāra concept, true knowledge begins when consciousness ends. Thus, “Enlightenment” is considered as the act of bringing the eight consciousnesses to an end and replacing them with enlightened cognitive abilities (jñāna). Here, the sixth consciousness (Manas) becomes the immediate cognition of equality (samatā-jñāna) by equalizing self and other. When the Warehouse Consciousness finally ceases it is replaced by the Great Mirror Cognition (Mahādarśa-jñāna) that sees and reflects things truly as they are (yathā-bhūtam).5,6,8
Thus, the grasper-grasped relationship ceases and the mind projects the things impartially without exclusion, prejudice, anticipation, attachment, or distortion. These "purified" cognitions remove the self-bias, prejudice and obstructions that had previously prevented a person from perceiving beyond his selfish consciousness. Since enlightened cognition is non-conceptual, its objects cannot be described. So, the Yogācāra School could not provide any description regarding the outcome of these types of enlightened cognitions except for referring these as 'pure' (of imaginative constructions).3,5,8
References
1. Keenan, J.P. 1988. Buddhist Yogācāra Philosophy as Ancilla Theologiae. Japanese Religions 15: 36.
2. Pensgard, D. 2006. Yogācāra Buddhism: A sympathetic description and suggestion for use in Western theology and philosophy of religion. JSRI 15:94-103.
3. Lusthaus, D. 2002. Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogācāra Buddhism and the Ch’eng Wei-shih lun. New York: Routledge Curzon.
4. Suzuki, D.T. 1998. Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra. New Delhi: India Munshiram Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd.
5. Chatterjee, A.K. 1975. The Yogācāra Idealism. Varnasi, India: Bhargava Bhushan Press, the Banaras Hindu University Press.
6. Tripathi, C.L.1972. The Problem of Knowledge in Yogācāra Buddhism. Varnasi, India: Bharat-Bharati Press.
7. King, R.1994. Early Yogācāra and its relationship with the Madhyamika school. Philosophy East & West 44: 659.
8. King, R. 1998. Vijnaptimatrata and the Abhidhamma context of early Yogācāra. Asian Philosophy 8(1): 5.
9. Yin, J. 2009. Yogācāra school and Faxiang school. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies, the University of Hong Kong.
IGNORE SELF-ENTITY: CULTIVATE THE MIND
IGNORE SELF-ENTITY: CULTIVATE THE MIND
A. BARUA, M.A. BASILIO
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Hong Kong, 2009
Communication Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,
Salt Lake City, Sector-2,
Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)
IGNORE SELF-ENTITY: CULTIVATE THE MIND
Abstract
Buddhism is the only world religion which does not recognize nor non-recognize the presence of any soul or self-entity. Whether a soul or a self-entity is present or absent was never answered by the Buddha. These questions are categorized as unanswered questions in Buddhism which the Buddha had insisted to be put aside (thapaniya) as they always lead to suffering and never address the issue of cessation of suffering. The Anatta teaching in Buddhism is not a doctrine of no-self, but a not-self strategy for shedding suffering by letting go of its cause that leads to the highest level of unlimited happiness. Without viewing anything as pertaining to “self” or “other”, we should recognize each phenomenon simply for what it is, as it is directly experienced and then perform the duty appropriate for it.
Key words: Self, Entity, Soul, Cultivation, Mind, Four Noble Truths.
IGNORE SELF-ENTITY: CULTIVATE THE MIND
Introduction
A unique feature of Buddhist teachings is the emphasis on Anatta, which is often translated as no-self. Buddhism is the only world religion which does not recognize nor non-recognize the presence of any soul or self-entity.1,2 In fact, Buddhism holds a neutral position in this context. Many modern scholars misinterpret the teachings of the Buddha and believe that Buddhism does not believe in soul or self-entity. But the fact is that, whether a soul or a self-entity is present or absent was never answered by the Buddha. These questions are categorized as unanswered questions in Buddhism which the Buddha had insisted to be put aside (thapaniya) as they always lead to suffering and never address the issue of cessation of suffering.1,2,3 Thus, the Buddhist philosophy is similar to modern science where the scientists also hold a neutral position in this aspect as no one has ever discovered a soul or a self-entity till date.4
The word “self” is a misnomer in Buddhism
Buddhism trains us not to identify ourselves with the soul or self-entity as these would lead to ego problems and discrimination in our minds. But it never regards or disregards the presence or absence of soul or self-entity.
This creates confusion in the minds of the religious practitioners belonging to other religious backgrounds. This concept does not fit well with the Judeo-Christian, Hindu, Muslim and Jain background which assumes the existence of an eternal soul or self as a basic presupposition. There is often an argument on the issue that if there is no-self then what is transmitted from one life to the other. If there is no soul or self-entity then what is the purpose of a spiritual life. Also, the idea of there being no-self does not fit well with other Buddhist teachings such as the doctrine of Karma and Rebirth. If there is no self then what experiences the results of Karma and takes rebirth is a debatable issue.1,2,4
While understanding the background why the Buddha had observed silence to address this issue, we must remember that Buddhism never interfered with existing local socio-cultural practices and laws of the country. Wherever Buddhism had spread, it had recognized and incorporated the existing socio-cultural practices of the community and modified its own rules and regulations accordingly. This is an important reason why Buddhism has become a world religion without inflicting any harm or exerting any force on anyone. As the concepts of soul and self-entity were deep-rooted in Indian culture and society since ancient times and the fundamental block for existing Brahmanism, Buddhism did not want to go for an outright clash on this issue and disturb the peace and harmony of the society. Buddhism had assumed a neutral position and never supported or disregarded the ancient Indian beliefs of soul and self-entity.4,5
The Concept of No-Self (Anatta) in Buddhism
If we explore the Pali Canon, the earliest extant record of the Buddha's teachings, we find that the Buddha had never addressed the issues related to soul or self-entity. In fact, when the Buddha was asked whether or not there was a soul or self, he refused to answer. He urged that to hold either that there is a self or that there is no self is to fall into extreme forms of wrong view that make the path of Buddhist practice impossible (Samyutta Nikaya XLIV.10). Thus, the question should be put aside (thapaniya) as these types of questions do not lead to the end the suffering and stress.1,2,3
There are some basic ground rules for interpreting the Buddha's teachings. The Buddha said that there are two types of people who misrepresented him. The first category of people comprised of those who drew inferences from statements that should not have inferences drawn from them. The second category included those who did not draw inferences from those which needed. But if we look at the way most scholars had addressed the Anatta doctrine, we find these ground rules being ignored. Some of the scholars tried to qualify the no-self interpretation by saying that the Buddha denied the existence of an eternal self or a separate self. If we accept this view then this means to give an analytical answer to a question that the Buddha insisted to be put aside.1,2,3
Some other scholars however, tried to draw inferences from the few statements in the discourse that implied that there is no-self. In this case, they forced those statements to give an answer to a question that should be put aside. Here, one was drawing inferences where it should not be drawn in the first place. These were attempts to refer the teachings of the Buddha out of context. We need to examine under what circumstances the Buddha gave his discourses. Quoting the Buddha out of context in order to win an argument is itself an example of our attachment of the minds to cling on to a dogmatic view.1,2,3
Parable of the Poisoned Arrow3
It is against this background that we need to understand why Buddhism has set aside (thapaniya) certain questions as undetermined (avyakata). Nothing illustrates this situation better than the parable of the poisoned arrow (sallupama). When the monk Malunkyaputta wanted to know from the Buddha the answers to these ten questions, the Buddha told him that these questions are “undetermined, set aside, and rejected” by the Blessed One. The answers to these questions were not relevant to understanding the fact of suffering and its elimination. It was as irrelevant as the need to know the name of the person who shot the arrow in order to remove it from the body. But here we should keep in mind that the parable of the poisoned arrow implied indirectly that questions regarding who shot the arrow could be answered, though they were irrelevant for the purpose of a cure. So, the questions of soul and self-entity were not undetermined questions (avyakata), but they were irrelevant and should be put aside (thapaniya) in Buddhist perspective.
The Four Noble Truths1,2,4,5
Instead of answering “yes” or "no" to the question of whether or not there is a soul or self-entity that is interconnected or separate, eternal or not, the Buddha considered these questions as irrelevant and inappropriate. This is because, no matter how we define "self" and "other," the notion of self involves an element of self-identification and clinging and thus suffering and stress. The notion of “self” is thus an attachment that leads to ego and thus culminates in suffering.
If we identify ourselves with all of nature, then we feel pain by the death of every creature or plant on earth. If we do not identify with anything at all in nature, then it holds for an entirely "other" universe. In this case, the sense of alienation would become so debilitating as to make the quest for happiness, whether for one's own or that of other, as impossible. Considering these reasons, the Buddha advised paying no attention to such questions as "Do I exist?" or "Don't I exist?" for whatever manner we answer them; they lead to suffering and stress. We must remember that the prime goal of Buddhism is to end suffering for all sentient beings through the phenomenal and mental cultivations.
To avoid the suffering implicit in questions of "self" and "other," the Buddha had offered an alternative way of dividing up experience. This is through his preaching of the Four Noble Truths that includes Dukkha our sufferings, cause of suffering, its cessation, and the path to cessation of suffering. Stress should be comprehended. Its cause should be abandoned. Its cessation should be realized and the path to its cessation should be developed. The main cause of our suffering is the attachment of our mind either to material forms or dogmatic views. We need to shed these clinging or attachments and keep our mind wide open all the time. Without viewing anything as pertaining to “self” or “other”, we should recognize each phenomenon simply for what it is, as it is directly experienced and then perform the duty appropriate for it.
Conclusion
Through the cultivation of mind if we are able to comprehend the inner meanings of the Four Noble Truths, then the common questions that earlier occurred in our minds as "Is there a self? What is my self?" would cease to occur. Instead, our mind would reframe these questions as "Am I suffering stress because I'm holding onto this particular phenomenon? Is it really me, myself, or mine? If it is stressful, but not really me or mine, then why should I hold on?" This would help us in comprehending suffering and help us to abandon our attachment and clinging with regard to the residual sense of self-identification. This would finally lead to the limitless freedom until ultimately all traces of self-identification are gone. In this context, we must remember that the Anatta teaching in Buddhism is not a doctrine of no-self, but a not-self strategy for shedding suffering by letting go of its cause that leads to the highest level of unlimited happiness. Once there is an experience of such total freedom, there would be no concern about who is experiencing it or whether there is any self or not.1,2
References
1. Bhikkhu, T. 2009. Anatta: The Concept of No-self in Buddhism [serial online]. [cited 2009 October 26]; [4 screens]. The Wanderling. Available from: URL: http://www.angelfire.com/electronic/awakening101/noself.html
2. V, Jayaram. 2009. The Buddhist Concept of Anatta or No-self (Anatma) [serial online]. [cited 2009 October 31]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.hinduwebsite.com/buddhism/anatta.asp
3. Karunadasa, Y. 2008. The Unanswered Questions: Why were they left unanswered? A New Interpretation based on a Re-examination of the Textual Data. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies, the University of Hong Kong.
4. Barua, A., Testerman, N., Basilio, M.A. 2009. Applied Buddhism the Foundation of Our True Understanding. Hong Kong: Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen & Unibook Publications.
5. Barua, D.K. 2005. Environment & Human Resources: Buddhist Approaches. Applied Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern Perspectives. . Varanasi, India: Centre for Buddhist Studies, Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies, Benaras Hindu University: 90-6.
A. BARUA, M.A. BASILIO
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Hong Kong, 2009
Communication Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,
Salt Lake City, Sector-2,
Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)
IGNORE SELF-ENTITY: CULTIVATE THE MIND
Abstract
Buddhism is the only world religion which does not recognize nor non-recognize the presence of any soul or self-entity. Whether a soul or a self-entity is present or absent was never answered by the Buddha. These questions are categorized as unanswered questions in Buddhism which the Buddha had insisted to be put aside (thapaniya) as they always lead to suffering and never address the issue of cessation of suffering. The Anatta teaching in Buddhism is not a doctrine of no-self, but a not-self strategy for shedding suffering by letting go of its cause that leads to the highest level of unlimited happiness. Without viewing anything as pertaining to “self” or “other”, we should recognize each phenomenon simply for what it is, as it is directly experienced and then perform the duty appropriate for it.
Key words: Self, Entity, Soul, Cultivation, Mind, Four Noble Truths.
IGNORE SELF-ENTITY: CULTIVATE THE MIND
Introduction
A unique feature of Buddhist teachings is the emphasis on Anatta, which is often translated as no-self. Buddhism is the only world religion which does not recognize nor non-recognize the presence of any soul or self-entity.1,2 In fact, Buddhism holds a neutral position in this context. Many modern scholars misinterpret the teachings of the Buddha and believe that Buddhism does not believe in soul or self-entity. But the fact is that, whether a soul or a self-entity is present or absent was never answered by the Buddha. These questions are categorized as unanswered questions in Buddhism which the Buddha had insisted to be put aside (thapaniya) as they always lead to suffering and never address the issue of cessation of suffering.1,2,3 Thus, the Buddhist philosophy is similar to modern science where the scientists also hold a neutral position in this aspect as no one has ever discovered a soul or a self-entity till date.4
The word “self” is a misnomer in Buddhism
Buddhism trains us not to identify ourselves with the soul or self-entity as these would lead to ego problems and discrimination in our minds. But it never regards or disregards the presence or absence of soul or self-entity.
This creates confusion in the minds of the religious practitioners belonging to other religious backgrounds. This concept does not fit well with the Judeo-Christian, Hindu, Muslim and Jain background which assumes the existence of an eternal soul or self as a basic presupposition. There is often an argument on the issue that if there is no-self then what is transmitted from one life to the other. If there is no soul or self-entity then what is the purpose of a spiritual life. Also, the idea of there being no-self does not fit well with other Buddhist teachings such as the doctrine of Karma and Rebirth. If there is no self then what experiences the results of Karma and takes rebirth is a debatable issue.1,2,4
While understanding the background why the Buddha had observed silence to address this issue, we must remember that Buddhism never interfered with existing local socio-cultural practices and laws of the country. Wherever Buddhism had spread, it had recognized and incorporated the existing socio-cultural practices of the community and modified its own rules and regulations accordingly. This is an important reason why Buddhism has become a world religion without inflicting any harm or exerting any force on anyone. As the concepts of soul and self-entity were deep-rooted in Indian culture and society since ancient times and the fundamental block for existing Brahmanism, Buddhism did not want to go for an outright clash on this issue and disturb the peace and harmony of the society. Buddhism had assumed a neutral position and never supported or disregarded the ancient Indian beliefs of soul and self-entity.4,5
The Concept of No-Self (Anatta) in Buddhism
If we explore the Pali Canon, the earliest extant record of the Buddha's teachings, we find that the Buddha had never addressed the issues related to soul or self-entity. In fact, when the Buddha was asked whether or not there was a soul or self, he refused to answer. He urged that to hold either that there is a self or that there is no self is to fall into extreme forms of wrong view that make the path of Buddhist practice impossible (Samyutta Nikaya XLIV.10). Thus, the question should be put aside (thapaniya) as these types of questions do not lead to the end the suffering and stress.1,2,3
There are some basic ground rules for interpreting the Buddha's teachings. The Buddha said that there are two types of people who misrepresented him. The first category of people comprised of those who drew inferences from statements that should not have inferences drawn from them. The second category included those who did not draw inferences from those which needed. But if we look at the way most scholars had addressed the Anatta doctrine, we find these ground rules being ignored. Some of the scholars tried to qualify the no-self interpretation by saying that the Buddha denied the existence of an eternal self or a separate self. If we accept this view then this means to give an analytical answer to a question that the Buddha insisted to be put aside.1,2,3
Some other scholars however, tried to draw inferences from the few statements in the discourse that implied that there is no-self. In this case, they forced those statements to give an answer to a question that should be put aside. Here, one was drawing inferences where it should not be drawn in the first place. These were attempts to refer the teachings of the Buddha out of context. We need to examine under what circumstances the Buddha gave his discourses. Quoting the Buddha out of context in order to win an argument is itself an example of our attachment of the minds to cling on to a dogmatic view.1,2,3
Parable of the Poisoned Arrow3
It is against this background that we need to understand why Buddhism has set aside (thapaniya) certain questions as undetermined (avyakata). Nothing illustrates this situation better than the parable of the poisoned arrow (sallupama). When the monk Malunkyaputta wanted to know from the Buddha the answers to these ten questions, the Buddha told him that these questions are “undetermined, set aside, and rejected” by the Blessed One. The answers to these questions were not relevant to understanding the fact of suffering and its elimination. It was as irrelevant as the need to know the name of the person who shot the arrow in order to remove it from the body. But here we should keep in mind that the parable of the poisoned arrow implied indirectly that questions regarding who shot the arrow could be answered, though they were irrelevant for the purpose of a cure. So, the questions of soul and self-entity were not undetermined questions (avyakata), but they were irrelevant and should be put aside (thapaniya) in Buddhist perspective.
The Four Noble Truths1,2,4,5
Instead of answering “yes” or "no" to the question of whether or not there is a soul or self-entity that is interconnected or separate, eternal or not, the Buddha considered these questions as irrelevant and inappropriate. This is because, no matter how we define "self" and "other," the notion of self involves an element of self-identification and clinging and thus suffering and stress. The notion of “self” is thus an attachment that leads to ego and thus culminates in suffering.
If we identify ourselves with all of nature, then we feel pain by the death of every creature or plant on earth. If we do not identify with anything at all in nature, then it holds for an entirely "other" universe. In this case, the sense of alienation would become so debilitating as to make the quest for happiness, whether for one's own or that of other, as impossible. Considering these reasons, the Buddha advised paying no attention to such questions as "Do I exist?" or "Don't I exist?" for whatever manner we answer them; they lead to suffering and stress. We must remember that the prime goal of Buddhism is to end suffering for all sentient beings through the phenomenal and mental cultivations.
To avoid the suffering implicit in questions of "self" and "other," the Buddha had offered an alternative way of dividing up experience. This is through his preaching of the Four Noble Truths that includes Dukkha our sufferings, cause of suffering, its cessation, and the path to cessation of suffering. Stress should be comprehended. Its cause should be abandoned. Its cessation should be realized and the path to its cessation should be developed. The main cause of our suffering is the attachment of our mind either to material forms or dogmatic views. We need to shed these clinging or attachments and keep our mind wide open all the time. Without viewing anything as pertaining to “self” or “other”, we should recognize each phenomenon simply for what it is, as it is directly experienced and then perform the duty appropriate for it.
Conclusion
Through the cultivation of mind if we are able to comprehend the inner meanings of the Four Noble Truths, then the common questions that earlier occurred in our minds as "Is there a self? What is my self?" would cease to occur. Instead, our mind would reframe these questions as "Am I suffering stress because I'm holding onto this particular phenomenon? Is it really me, myself, or mine? If it is stressful, but not really me or mine, then why should I hold on?" This would help us in comprehending suffering and help us to abandon our attachment and clinging with regard to the residual sense of self-identification. This would finally lead to the limitless freedom until ultimately all traces of self-identification are gone. In this context, we must remember that the Anatta teaching in Buddhism is not a doctrine of no-self, but a not-self strategy for shedding suffering by letting go of its cause that leads to the highest level of unlimited happiness. Once there is an experience of such total freedom, there would be no concern about who is experiencing it or whether there is any self or not.1,2
References
1. Bhikkhu, T. 2009. Anatta: The Concept of No-self in Buddhism [serial online]. [cited 2009 October 26]; [4 screens]. The Wanderling. Available from: URL: http://www.angelfire.com/electronic/awakening101/noself.html
2. V, Jayaram. 2009. The Buddhist Concept of Anatta or No-self (Anatma) [serial online]. [cited 2009 October 31]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.hinduwebsite.com/buddhism/anatta.asp
3. Karunadasa, Y. 2008. The Unanswered Questions: Why were they left unanswered? A New Interpretation based on a Re-examination of the Textual Data. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies, the University of Hong Kong.
4. Barua, A., Testerman, N., Basilio, M.A. 2009. Applied Buddhism the Foundation of Our True Understanding. Hong Kong: Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen & Unibook Publications.
5. Barua, D.K. 2005. Environment & Human Resources: Buddhist Approaches. Applied Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern Perspectives. . Varanasi, India: Centre for Buddhist Studies, Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies, Benaras Hindu University: 90-6.
APPLICATION OF BUDDHIST ECONOMICS IN PREVENTION OF GLOBAL CREDIT CRISIS
APPLICATION OF BUDDHIST ECONOMICS IN PREVENTION OF GLOBAL CREDIT CRISIS
ANKUR BARUA, DIPAK KUMAR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO
The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong &
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,
SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,
KOLKATA – 700 091
WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Tel: +91-33-23215586
Mobile: +919434485543
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
APPLICATION OF BUDDHIST ECONOMICS IN PREVENTION OF GLOBAL CREDIT CRISIS
Abstract
Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also to lead to a more democratic society.
An important truth is that no economic system is value-free. Every system of production and consumption encourages the development of certain values and discourages others. So, it is not possible for economics to be free of values when, in fact, it is rooted in the human mind. The economic process begins with want, continues with choice and ends with satisfaction. All of these are functions of the mind. We need to give up our attachments to material wealth and conquer greed and obsession for social recognition at individual level in order to make the economy value free.
Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.
The practice of ‘Dāna’ or ‘giving’ is the traditional Buddhist way of redistribution of wealth. Dāna is selfless giving. It is giving in the spirit of Non-clinging. Non-clinging is the Wisdom of Insight into the Insubstantiality (Anattā; Nairātmya) or Emptiness (Śūnyatā) of all things. The emphasis on ‘Dāna’ and merit-making is the Buddhist contribution to the healthy and uniform economic globalization.
Key words: Dāna, Globalization, Buddhism, Applied, Redistribution, Wealth, Economy.
APPLICATION OF BUDDHIST ECONOMICS IN PREVENTION OF GLOBAL CREDIT CRISIS
Introduction
Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also lead to the formation of a more democratic society.1,2 The concept of globalization is important for Buddhism because Buddhism is a global, world faith. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.1,2
A Buddhist Perception of Globalization
Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. This results in the progressive integration of economies of nations across the world through the unrestricted flow of global trade and investment. The mainstream approach is generally rooted in the underlying assumption that globalization brings jobs, technology, income and wealth to societies. In order to make this strategy of globalization successful, all the societies must be willing to submit to the principles of the free market—limiting public spending, privatizing public services, removing barriers to foreign investment, strengthening export production and controlling inflation. However, this is very difficult task to achieve within a short span of time. As a result, most often, globalized production has led to a litany of social and ecological crises: poverty and powerlessness of the majority of people, destruction of community, depletion of natural resources and unendurable pollution.1,2,3
Application of Buddhist Economics in Prevention of Global Credit Crisis
The traditional Buddhist teachings have many important social implications. Buddhism does not separate economic issues from ethical or spiritual ones. The notion that economics is a "social science" related to discovering and applying impersonal economic laws always obscures two important truths. First important truth is that the concept of who gets what and who does not depends on moral considerations. So, production and distribution of economic goods and services should not be left only to the supposedly objective rules of the marketplace. If some people have much more than what they need while others have much less, some sort of redistribution is necessary.1,2,4,5
Thus, the practice of ‘Dāna’ or ‘giving’ is the traditional Buddhist way of redistribution of wealth. Dāna is selfless giving. It is giving in the spirit of Non-clinging. Non-clinging is the Wisdom of Insight into the Insubstantiality (Anattā; Nairātmya) or Emptiness (Śūnyatā) of all things. The emphasis on ‘Dāna’ and merit-making is the Buddhist perspective on the economic globalization.1,2,4,5
The second important truth is that no economic system is value-free. Every system of production and consumption encourages the development of certain values and discourages others. The economic process begins with want, continues with choice and ends with satisfaction. All of these are functions of the mind. Abstract values are thus the beginning, the middle and the end of economics. So it is impossible for economics to be value-free. Yet many economists avoid any consideration of values, ethics or mental qualities, despite the fact that these will always have a bearing on economic concerns.1,2,4,5
At present, without the help from government and industry for boosting a new direction in policy, people are starting to change the economy from the bottom up towards more human-scale structures which are more consistent with the Buddhist viewpoint. This process of localization has begun spontaneously, in countless communities all around the world. Because economic localization means an adaptation to cultural and biological diversity, no single strategy would be applicable everywhere.3,6
The range of possibilities for local grassroots efforts is as diverse as the locales in which they take place. In many towns community banks and loan funds have been set up, thereby increasing the capital available to local residents and businesses. This system is promoting people to invest in their neighbors and their community, rather than in a faceless global economy. In other communities, ‘buy-local’ campaigns are helping locally owned businesses survive even when pitted against heavily subsidized corporate competitors. These campaigns not only help to keep money from leaking out of the local economy, but also help educate people about the hidden costs in purchasing cheaper, but distantly produced products. 3,6
In some communities, Local Exchange and Trading Systems (LETS) have been established as an organized, large-scale bartering system. Thus, even people with little or no ‘real’ money can participate in and benefit from the local economy. LETS systems have been particularly beneficial in areas with high unemployment. The city government of Birmingham, England, where unemployment hovers at 20%, is a co-sponsor of a highly successful LETS scheme. These initiatives have psychological benefits that are just as important as the economic benefits. A large number of people, who were once merely ‘unemployed’ and therefore treated as ‘useless’, are becoming valued for their skills and knowledge.3,6
One of the most exciting grassroots efforts is the Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) movement, in which consumers in towns and cities link up directly with a nearby farmer. In some cases, consumers purchase an entire season’s produce in advance, sharing the risk with the farmer. In others, shares of the harvest are purchased in monthly or quarterly installments. Consumers usually have a chance to visit the farm where their food is grown, and in some cases their help on the farm is welcomed. While small farmers linked to the industrial system continue to fail every year at an alarming rate, CSAs are allowing small-scale diversified farms to thrive in growing numbers. CSAs have spread rapidly throughout Europe, North America, Australia and Japan. In the United States, the number of CSAs has climbed from only two in 1986 to 200 in 1992, and is closer to 1,000 today.3,6
Buddhism provides us with both the imperative and the tools to challenge the economic structures that are creating and perpetuating suffering the world over. We cannot claim to be Buddhist and simultaneously support structures which are so clearly contrary to Buddha’s teachings, unethical to life itself. The economic and structural changes needed should involve rediscovering the deep psychological benefits of joy of being embedded in the community and this fundamental shift would also involve the reintroduction of a sense of connection with the place where we live. Buddhists in China also faced with this same reality earlier.4,5,7
Thus, over the time Buddhism became more focused to become engaged. However, as the Buddha taught, our spiritual awakening comes from making a connection to others and to the nature. This requires us to see the world within us and to experience more consciously the great interdependent web of life. In this way the principles of impermanence and interdependence exhort us to interact with others and with nature in a wise, compassionate and sustainable way.4,5,7
Conclusion
Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism shows us the possibility of a better way of leading a stress-free life. However, from a materialistic perspective and the "social science" of economics, such philosophical and spiritual understanding of life are considered as superstitious and escapist.4,5,7 The teachings of the Buddha are based on a different way of understanding the relationship between ourselves and the world. From the Buddhist perspective, economic growth and consumerism are unsatisfactory alternatives because they evade the basic problem of life, which is suffering, by distracting us with symbolic substitutes such as money, status and power.
References
1. Quang, T.T. 2009. Buddhism and Globalization. Bliss and Growth. Blag Biz.
2. Loy, D. 2007. A Buddhist View of Globalization. Buddhist Peace Fellowship. Japan: Bunkyo University.
3. Power, G. 1997. Globalization and its Discontents in Development. The Journal of the Society for International Development 40(2).
4. Hodge, H.N. 2009. Buddhism in the Global Economy. Berkeley, US: ISEC.
5. Payutto, P.A. 1994. Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place. (translated by Dhammavijaya and Bruce Evans) Second Edition. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation.
6. Schumacher, E.F. 1975. Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered. New York: Harper.
7. Sizemore, R.F., Swearer, D.K., ed. 1990. Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina.
ANKUR BARUA, DIPAK KUMAR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO
The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong &
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,
SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,
KOLKATA – 700 091
WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Tel: +91-33-23215586
Mobile: +919434485543
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
APPLICATION OF BUDDHIST ECONOMICS IN PREVENTION OF GLOBAL CREDIT CRISIS
Abstract
Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also to lead to a more democratic society.
An important truth is that no economic system is value-free. Every system of production and consumption encourages the development of certain values and discourages others. So, it is not possible for economics to be free of values when, in fact, it is rooted in the human mind. The economic process begins with want, continues with choice and ends with satisfaction. All of these are functions of the mind. We need to give up our attachments to material wealth and conquer greed and obsession for social recognition at individual level in order to make the economy value free.
Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.
The practice of ‘Dāna’ or ‘giving’ is the traditional Buddhist way of redistribution of wealth. Dāna is selfless giving. It is giving in the spirit of Non-clinging. Non-clinging is the Wisdom of Insight into the Insubstantiality (Anattā; Nairātmya) or Emptiness (Śūnyatā) of all things. The emphasis on ‘Dāna’ and merit-making is the Buddhist contribution to the healthy and uniform economic globalization.
Key words: Dāna, Globalization, Buddhism, Applied, Redistribution, Wealth, Economy.
APPLICATION OF BUDDHIST ECONOMICS IN PREVENTION OF GLOBAL CREDIT CRISIS
Introduction
Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also lead to the formation of a more democratic society.1,2 The concept of globalization is important for Buddhism because Buddhism is a global, world faith. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.1,2
A Buddhist Perception of Globalization
Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. This results in the progressive integration of economies of nations across the world through the unrestricted flow of global trade and investment. The mainstream approach is generally rooted in the underlying assumption that globalization brings jobs, technology, income and wealth to societies. In order to make this strategy of globalization successful, all the societies must be willing to submit to the principles of the free market—limiting public spending, privatizing public services, removing barriers to foreign investment, strengthening export production and controlling inflation. However, this is very difficult task to achieve within a short span of time. As a result, most often, globalized production has led to a litany of social and ecological crises: poverty and powerlessness of the majority of people, destruction of community, depletion of natural resources and unendurable pollution.1,2,3
Application of Buddhist Economics in Prevention of Global Credit Crisis
The traditional Buddhist teachings have many important social implications. Buddhism does not separate economic issues from ethical or spiritual ones. The notion that economics is a "social science" related to discovering and applying impersonal economic laws always obscures two important truths. First important truth is that the concept of who gets what and who does not depends on moral considerations. So, production and distribution of economic goods and services should not be left only to the supposedly objective rules of the marketplace. If some people have much more than what they need while others have much less, some sort of redistribution is necessary.1,2,4,5
Thus, the practice of ‘Dāna’ or ‘giving’ is the traditional Buddhist way of redistribution of wealth. Dāna is selfless giving. It is giving in the spirit of Non-clinging. Non-clinging is the Wisdom of Insight into the Insubstantiality (Anattā; Nairātmya) or Emptiness (Śūnyatā) of all things. The emphasis on ‘Dāna’ and merit-making is the Buddhist perspective on the economic globalization.1,2,4,5
The second important truth is that no economic system is value-free. Every system of production and consumption encourages the development of certain values and discourages others. The economic process begins with want, continues with choice and ends with satisfaction. All of these are functions of the mind. Abstract values are thus the beginning, the middle and the end of economics. So it is impossible for economics to be value-free. Yet many economists avoid any consideration of values, ethics or mental qualities, despite the fact that these will always have a bearing on economic concerns.1,2,4,5
At present, without the help from government and industry for boosting a new direction in policy, people are starting to change the economy from the bottom up towards more human-scale structures which are more consistent with the Buddhist viewpoint. This process of localization has begun spontaneously, in countless communities all around the world. Because economic localization means an adaptation to cultural and biological diversity, no single strategy would be applicable everywhere.3,6
The range of possibilities for local grassroots efforts is as diverse as the locales in which they take place. In many towns community banks and loan funds have been set up, thereby increasing the capital available to local residents and businesses. This system is promoting people to invest in their neighbors and their community, rather than in a faceless global economy. In other communities, ‘buy-local’ campaigns are helping locally owned businesses survive even when pitted against heavily subsidized corporate competitors. These campaigns not only help to keep money from leaking out of the local economy, but also help educate people about the hidden costs in purchasing cheaper, but distantly produced products. 3,6
In some communities, Local Exchange and Trading Systems (LETS) have been established as an organized, large-scale bartering system. Thus, even people with little or no ‘real’ money can participate in and benefit from the local economy. LETS systems have been particularly beneficial in areas with high unemployment. The city government of Birmingham, England, where unemployment hovers at 20%, is a co-sponsor of a highly successful LETS scheme. These initiatives have psychological benefits that are just as important as the economic benefits. A large number of people, who were once merely ‘unemployed’ and therefore treated as ‘useless’, are becoming valued for their skills and knowledge.3,6
One of the most exciting grassroots efforts is the Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) movement, in which consumers in towns and cities link up directly with a nearby farmer. In some cases, consumers purchase an entire season’s produce in advance, sharing the risk with the farmer. In others, shares of the harvest are purchased in monthly or quarterly installments. Consumers usually have a chance to visit the farm where their food is grown, and in some cases their help on the farm is welcomed. While small farmers linked to the industrial system continue to fail every year at an alarming rate, CSAs are allowing small-scale diversified farms to thrive in growing numbers. CSAs have spread rapidly throughout Europe, North America, Australia and Japan. In the United States, the number of CSAs has climbed from only two in 1986 to 200 in 1992, and is closer to 1,000 today.3,6
Buddhism provides us with both the imperative and the tools to challenge the economic structures that are creating and perpetuating suffering the world over. We cannot claim to be Buddhist and simultaneously support structures which are so clearly contrary to Buddha’s teachings, unethical to life itself. The economic and structural changes needed should involve rediscovering the deep psychological benefits of joy of being embedded in the community and this fundamental shift would also involve the reintroduction of a sense of connection with the place where we live. Buddhists in China also faced with this same reality earlier.4,5,7
Thus, over the time Buddhism became more focused to become engaged. However, as the Buddha taught, our spiritual awakening comes from making a connection to others and to the nature. This requires us to see the world within us and to experience more consciously the great interdependent web of life. In this way the principles of impermanence and interdependence exhort us to interact with others and with nature in a wise, compassionate and sustainable way.4,5,7
Conclusion
Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism shows us the possibility of a better way of leading a stress-free life. However, from a materialistic perspective and the "social science" of economics, such philosophical and spiritual understanding of life are considered as superstitious and escapist.4,5,7 The teachings of the Buddha are based on a different way of understanding the relationship between ourselves and the world. From the Buddhist perspective, economic growth and consumerism are unsatisfactory alternatives because they evade the basic problem of life, which is suffering, by distracting us with symbolic substitutes such as money, status and power.
References
1. Quang, T.T. 2009. Buddhism and Globalization. Bliss and Growth. Blag Biz.
2. Loy, D. 2007. A Buddhist View of Globalization. Buddhist Peace Fellowship. Japan: Bunkyo University.
3. Power, G. 1997. Globalization and its Discontents in Development. The Journal of the Society for International Development 40(2).
4. Hodge, H.N. 2009. Buddhism in the Global Economy. Berkeley, US: ISEC.
5. Payutto, P.A. 1994. Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place. (translated by Dhammavijaya and Bruce Evans) Second Edition. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation.
6. Schumacher, E.F. 1975. Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered. New York: Harper.
7. Sizemore, R.F., Swearer, D.K., ed. 1990. Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina.
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS
ANKUR BARUA, DIPAK KUMAR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO
The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong &
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,
SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,
KOLKATA – 700 091
WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Tel: +91-33-23215586
Mobile: +919434485543
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS
Abstract
Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.
An important truth is that no economic system is value-free. Every system of production and consumption encourages the development of certain values and discourages others. So, it is not possible for economics to be free of values when, in fact, it is rooted in the human mind. The economic process begins with want, continues with choice and ends with satisfaction. All of these are functions of the mind. We need to give up our attachments to material wealth and conquer greed and obsession for social recognition at individual level in order to make the economy value free.
Key words: Globalization, Buddhism, Applied, Wealth, Economy.
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS
Introduction
The issue of globalization is directly or indirectly affecting all our lives. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also lead to the formation of a more democratic society. Unfortunately, the effects of the globalization of business and trade are often disastrous for underdeveloped nations. These nations provide the raw materials and cheap labor which are necessary to make globalization prosperous for the more developed nations. Though there are successes in the process of globalization, there is much unrest in the poor and underdeveloped nations which are deep in debt and suffer internal conflict, poverty, droughts and famines.1,2
The concept of globalization is important for Buddhism because Buddhism is a global, world faith. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.1,2
Buddhism and the Problem of Global Economic Crisis
When we evaluate an economic system, we should consider not only how efficiently it produces and distributes goods, but also its effects on human values, and through them its larger social effects. The collective values that it encourages should be consistent with the individual Buddhist values that reduce the Dukkha. As the individual and social values cannot be delinked, the crucial issue remains as whether our economic system is conducive to the ethical and spiritual development of its members.
Much of the philosophical reflection on economics has focused on questions about human nature. Those who defend market capitalism argue that its emphasis on competition and personal gain is grounded in the fact that humans are fundamentally self-centered and self-interested. Critics of capitalism argue that our basic nature is more cooperative and generous that is, we are naturally more selfless.3,4
Buddhism avoids that debate by taking a different approach. The Buddha emphasized that we all have both unwholesome and unwholesome traits (kusala / akusalamula). The important issue is the practical matter of how to reduce our unwholesome characteristics and develop the more wholesome ones. This process is symbolized by the lotus flower. Although rooted in the mud and muck at the bottom of a pond, the lotus grows upwards to bloom on the surface, thus representing our potential to purify ourselves.5 Our unwholesome characteristics are usually summarized as the "three poisons" or three roots of evil: lobha - greed, dosa - anger and moha - delusion. The goal of the Buddhist way of life is to eliminate these roots by transforming them into their positive counterparts: greed into generosity (Dāna), anger into loving-kindness (metta), and delusion into wisdom (prajna).5,6
Economists talk about demand, but their concern to be objective and value-neutral does not allow them to evaluate different types of demand. The "engine" of the economic process is the desire for continual profits and in order to keep making those profits people must consume more. Harnessing this type of motivation has been extraordinarily successful depending on your definition of success. According to the Worldwatch Institute, more goods and services were consumed in the forty years between 1950 and 1990 (measured in constant dollars) than by all the previous generations in human history. According to the United Nations Human Development Report for 1999, the world spent at least $435 billion the previous year for advertising, plus well over $100 billion for public relations and marketing. The result is 270 million "global teens" who now inhabit a single pop-culture world, consuming the same designer clothes, music and soft drinks.3,4
While this growth has given us opportunities that our grandparents never dreamed of, we have also become more sensitive to the negative consequences such as its staggering ecological impact and the worsening mal-distribution of this wealth. A child in the developed countries consumes and pollutes 30 to 50 times as much as a poor one in an undeveloped country, according to the same UNHDR. Today 1.2 billion people survive on less than a dollar a day and almost half the world's population live on less than two dollars a day. The 20% of people in the richest countries enjoy 86% of the world's consumption, the poorest 20% only 1.3%. Thus, the gap of globalization is increasing and not decreasing.3,4
From a Buddhist perspective, the fundamental problem with consumerism is the delusion that genuine happiness can be found this way. If insatiable desires (tanha) are the source of the frustration (dukkha) that we experience in our daily lives, then such consumption, which distracts us and intoxicates us, is not the solution to our unhappiness but one of its main symptoms. That brings us to the final irony of this addiction to consumption: also according to the 1999 UNHDR, the percentage of Americans who considered themselves happy peaked in 1957, despite the fact that consumption per person has more than doubled since then. At the same time, studies of U.S. households have found that between 1986 and 1994 the amount of money people think they need to live happily has doubled. That seems paradoxical, but it is not difficult to explain. When we define ourselves as consumers, we can never have enough. For reasons we never quite understand, consumerism never really gives us what we want from it; it works by keeping us thinking that the next thing we buy will satisfy us.4,5,7,8
Higher incomes have certainly enabled many people to become more generous, but this has not been their main effect, because capitalism is based upon a very different principle: that capital should be used to create more capital. Rather than redistributing our wealth, we prefer to invest that wealth as a means to accumulate more and spend more, regardless of whether or not we need more. In fact, the question of whether or not we really need more has become rather quaint; you can never be too rich.4,5,6,8
This way of thinking has become natural for us, but it is uncommon in societies where advertising has not yet conditioned people into believing that happiness is something you purchase. International development agencies have been slow to realize what anthropologists have long understood. In traditional cultures, income is not the primary criterion of well-being and sometimes it is not even a major one. The person who is sometimes ranked as poorest by the common people in a community is often a man who is probably the only person receiving a salary.6,7,8
Our obsession with economic growth seems natural to us because we have forgotten the hierarchy of "needs" that we often take for granted. We project our own values when we assume that a person must be unhappy by presuming that the only way to become happy is to start on the treadmill of a lifestyle increasingly preoccupied with consumption. However, the importance of self-limitation, which requires some degree of non-attachment, is an essential human attribute to remain happy according to Buddhism. This is expressed better in a Tibetan Buddhist analogy. The world is full of thorns and sharp stones (and now broken glass too). What should we do about this? One solution is to pave over the entire earth, but a simpler alternative is to wear shoes. "Paving the whole planet" is a good metaphor for how our collective technological and economic project is attempting to make us happy. Without the wisdom of self-limitation, we will not be satisfied even when we have used up all the earth's resources. The other solution is for our minds to learn how to "wear shoes," so that our collective ends become an expression of the renewable means that the biosphere provides.5,6,8
Our evangelical efforts to economically "develop" other societies, which cherish their own spiritual values and community traditions, might be viewed as a contemporary form of religious imperialism. Conventional economic theory assumes that resources are limited but our desires are infinitely expandable. As we know, desire leads to frustration and it is a major cause of anger and hatred. Without self-limitation desire also becomes a cause for conflict. From a Buddhist point of view, our economic emphasis on competition and individual gain encourages the development of anger and hatred in the mind rather than cultivating the loving-kindness. A society where people do not feel that they benefit from sharing with each other is a society that has already begun to break down. The Buddha warned against negative feelings such as envy (issa) and avarice (macchariya). Issa becomes intense when certain possessions are enjoyed by one section of society while another section does not have the opportunity to acquire them. Macchariya is the selfish enjoyment of goods while greedily guarding them from others. A society in which these psychological tendencies predominate may be materially wealthy but it is spiritually poor.3,5,6,7,8
The globalization of market capitalism is a victory for "free trade" over the inefficiencies of protectionism and special interests. Free trade seems to realize in the economic sphere the supreme value that we place on freedom. It optimizes access to resources and markets. But despite its success, it is only one historically-conditioned way of understanding and reorganizing the world. However, if we view "free trade" from a different perspective provided by Buddhism, we shall understand that such an idea helps us to see presuppositions usually taken for granted. The Buddhist critique of a value-free economics suggests that globalizing capitalism is neither natural nor inevitable.1,2,3
The critical stage in the development of market capitalism occurred during the industrial revolution (1750 1850 in England), when new technologies led to the "liberation" of a critical mass of land, labor, and capital. They became understood in a new way for commodities to be bought and sold. The world had to be converted into exchangeable "resources" for market forces to interact freely and productively. But it was strongly resisted by most people at the time and was later successfully implemented only because of strong government support for it. For those who had capital to invest, the industrial revolution was very profitable. But for most people industrial commoditization seems to have been experienced as a tragedy. The earth became commoditized into a collection of resources to be exploited. Human life became commoditized into labor or work time and was also priced according to supply and demand. All these became means which the new economy used to generate more capital.3,4
From a religious perspective, when things become treated as commodities they lose their spiritual dimension. The commoditized understanding induces a sharp duality between humans and the rest of the world. All value is created by our goals and desires. The rest of the world has no meaning or value except when it serves our purposes. This now seems quite natural to us, because we have been conditioned to think and live this way. For Buddhism, however, such a dualistic understanding is delusive. The world is a web; nothing has any reality of its own apart from that web, because everything is dependent on everything else. The concept of interdependence challenges our usual sense of separation from the world. The feeling that ‘I am here and the world is out there’, is at the root of our Dukkha and it alienates us from the world where we live. This non-dual interdependence of things was experienced by the Buddha when he became enlightened. The Buddhist path works by helping us to realize our interdependence and non-duality with the world and to live in harmony with it.5,6,7,8
Conclusion
Buddhism shows us the possibility of a better way of leading a stress-free life. However, from a materialistic perspective and the "social science" of economics, such philosophical and spiritual understanding of life are considered as superstitious and escapist.5,6,8
The teachings of the Buddha are based on a different way of understanding the relationship between ourselves and the world. From the Buddhist perspective, economic growth and consumerism are unsatisfactory alternatives because they evade the basic problem of life, which is suffering, by distracting us with symbolic substitutes such as money, status and power.
References
1. Quang, T.T. 2009. Buddhism and Globalization. Bliss and Growth. Blag Biz.
2. Loy, D. 2007. A Buddhist View of Globalization. Buddhist Peace Fellowship. Japan: Bunkyo University.
3. Power, G. 1997. Globalization and its Discontents in Development. The Journal of the Society for International Development 40(2).
4. Schumacher, E.F. 1975. Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered. New York: Harper.
5. Payutto, P.A. 1994. Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place. (translated by Dhammavijaya and Bruce Evans) Second Edition. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation.
6. Sizemore, R.F., Swearer, D.K., ed. 1990. Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina.
7. David R. Loy, "The Religion of the Market" in Visions of a New Earth: Religious Perspectives on Population, Consumption and Ecology, edited by Harold Coward and Dan Maguire (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1999.
8. Hodge, H.N. 2009. Buddhism in the Global Economy. Berkeley, US: ISEC.
ANKUR BARUA, DIPAK KUMAR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO
The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong &
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,
SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,
KOLKATA – 700 091
WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Tel: +91-33-23215586
Mobile: +919434485543
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS
Abstract
Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.
An important truth is that no economic system is value-free. Every system of production and consumption encourages the development of certain values and discourages others. So, it is not possible for economics to be free of values when, in fact, it is rooted in the human mind. The economic process begins with want, continues with choice and ends with satisfaction. All of these are functions of the mind. We need to give up our attachments to material wealth and conquer greed and obsession for social recognition at individual level in order to make the economy value free.
Key words: Globalization, Buddhism, Applied, Wealth, Economy.
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS
Introduction
The issue of globalization is directly or indirectly affecting all our lives. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also lead to the formation of a more democratic society. Unfortunately, the effects of the globalization of business and trade are often disastrous for underdeveloped nations. These nations provide the raw materials and cheap labor which are necessary to make globalization prosperous for the more developed nations. Though there are successes in the process of globalization, there is much unrest in the poor and underdeveloped nations which are deep in debt and suffer internal conflict, poverty, droughts and famines.1,2
The concept of globalization is important for Buddhism because Buddhism is a global, world faith. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.1,2
Buddhism and the Problem of Global Economic Crisis
When we evaluate an economic system, we should consider not only how efficiently it produces and distributes goods, but also its effects on human values, and through them its larger social effects. The collective values that it encourages should be consistent with the individual Buddhist values that reduce the Dukkha. As the individual and social values cannot be delinked, the crucial issue remains as whether our economic system is conducive to the ethical and spiritual development of its members.
Much of the philosophical reflection on economics has focused on questions about human nature. Those who defend market capitalism argue that its emphasis on competition and personal gain is grounded in the fact that humans are fundamentally self-centered and self-interested. Critics of capitalism argue that our basic nature is more cooperative and generous that is, we are naturally more selfless.3,4
Buddhism avoids that debate by taking a different approach. The Buddha emphasized that we all have both unwholesome and unwholesome traits (kusala / akusalamula). The important issue is the practical matter of how to reduce our unwholesome characteristics and develop the more wholesome ones. This process is symbolized by the lotus flower. Although rooted in the mud and muck at the bottom of a pond, the lotus grows upwards to bloom on the surface, thus representing our potential to purify ourselves.5 Our unwholesome characteristics are usually summarized as the "three poisons" or three roots of evil: lobha - greed, dosa - anger and moha - delusion. The goal of the Buddhist way of life is to eliminate these roots by transforming them into their positive counterparts: greed into generosity (Dāna), anger into loving-kindness (metta), and delusion into wisdom (prajna).5,6
Economists talk about demand, but their concern to be objective and value-neutral does not allow them to evaluate different types of demand. The "engine" of the economic process is the desire for continual profits and in order to keep making those profits people must consume more. Harnessing this type of motivation has been extraordinarily successful depending on your definition of success. According to the Worldwatch Institute, more goods and services were consumed in the forty years between 1950 and 1990 (measured in constant dollars) than by all the previous generations in human history. According to the United Nations Human Development Report for 1999, the world spent at least $435 billion the previous year for advertising, plus well over $100 billion for public relations and marketing. The result is 270 million "global teens" who now inhabit a single pop-culture world, consuming the same designer clothes, music and soft drinks.3,4
While this growth has given us opportunities that our grandparents never dreamed of, we have also become more sensitive to the negative consequences such as its staggering ecological impact and the worsening mal-distribution of this wealth. A child in the developed countries consumes and pollutes 30 to 50 times as much as a poor one in an undeveloped country, according to the same UNHDR. Today 1.2 billion people survive on less than a dollar a day and almost half the world's population live on less than two dollars a day. The 20% of people in the richest countries enjoy 86% of the world's consumption, the poorest 20% only 1.3%. Thus, the gap of globalization is increasing and not decreasing.3,4
From a Buddhist perspective, the fundamental problem with consumerism is the delusion that genuine happiness can be found this way. If insatiable desires (tanha) are the source of the frustration (dukkha) that we experience in our daily lives, then such consumption, which distracts us and intoxicates us, is not the solution to our unhappiness but one of its main symptoms. That brings us to the final irony of this addiction to consumption: also according to the 1999 UNHDR, the percentage of Americans who considered themselves happy peaked in 1957, despite the fact that consumption per person has more than doubled since then. At the same time, studies of U.S. households have found that between 1986 and 1994 the amount of money people think they need to live happily has doubled. That seems paradoxical, but it is not difficult to explain. When we define ourselves as consumers, we can never have enough. For reasons we never quite understand, consumerism never really gives us what we want from it; it works by keeping us thinking that the next thing we buy will satisfy us.4,5,7,8
Higher incomes have certainly enabled many people to become more generous, but this has not been their main effect, because capitalism is based upon a very different principle: that capital should be used to create more capital. Rather than redistributing our wealth, we prefer to invest that wealth as a means to accumulate more and spend more, regardless of whether or not we need more. In fact, the question of whether or not we really need more has become rather quaint; you can never be too rich.4,5,6,8
This way of thinking has become natural for us, but it is uncommon in societies where advertising has not yet conditioned people into believing that happiness is something you purchase. International development agencies have been slow to realize what anthropologists have long understood. In traditional cultures, income is not the primary criterion of well-being and sometimes it is not even a major one. The person who is sometimes ranked as poorest by the common people in a community is often a man who is probably the only person receiving a salary.6,7,8
Our obsession with economic growth seems natural to us because we have forgotten the hierarchy of "needs" that we often take for granted. We project our own values when we assume that a person must be unhappy by presuming that the only way to become happy is to start on the treadmill of a lifestyle increasingly preoccupied with consumption. However, the importance of self-limitation, which requires some degree of non-attachment, is an essential human attribute to remain happy according to Buddhism. This is expressed better in a Tibetan Buddhist analogy. The world is full of thorns and sharp stones (and now broken glass too). What should we do about this? One solution is to pave over the entire earth, but a simpler alternative is to wear shoes. "Paving the whole planet" is a good metaphor for how our collective technological and economic project is attempting to make us happy. Without the wisdom of self-limitation, we will not be satisfied even when we have used up all the earth's resources. The other solution is for our minds to learn how to "wear shoes," so that our collective ends become an expression of the renewable means that the biosphere provides.5,6,8
Our evangelical efforts to economically "develop" other societies, which cherish their own spiritual values and community traditions, might be viewed as a contemporary form of religious imperialism. Conventional economic theory assumes that resources are limited but our desires are infinitely expandable. As we know, desire leads to frustration and it is a major cause of anger and hatred. Without self-limitation desire also becomes a cause for conflict. From a Buddhist point of view, our economic emphasis on competition and individual gain encourages the development of anger and hatred in the mind rather than cultivating the loving-kindness. A society where people do not feel that they benefit from sharing with each other is a society that has already begun to break down. The Buddha warned against negative feelings such as envy (issa) and avarice (macchariya). Issa becomes intense when certain possessions are enjoyed by one section of society while another section does not have the opportunity to acquire them. Macchariya is the selfish enjoyment of goods while greedily guarding them from others. A society in which these psychological tendencies predominate may be materially wealthy but it is spiritually poor.3,5,6,7,8
The globalization of market capitalism is a victory for "free trade" over the inefficiencies of protectionism and special interests. Free trade seems to realize in the economic sphere the supreme value that we place on freedom. It optimizes access to resources and markets. But despite its success, it is only one historically-conditioned way of understanding and reorganizing the world. However, if we view "free trade" from a different perspective provided by Buddhism, we shall understand that such an idea helps us to see presuppositions usually taken for granted. The Buddhist critique of a value-free economics suggests that globalizing capitalism is neither natural nor inevitable.1,2,3
The critical stage in the development of market capitalism occurred during the industrial revolution (1750 1850 in England), when new technologies led to the "liberation" of a critical mass of land, labor, and capital. They became understood in a new way for commodities to be bought and sold. The world had to be converted into exchangeable "resources" for market forces to interact freely and productively. But it was strongly resisted by most people at the time and was later successfully implemented only because of strong government support for it. For those who had capital to invest, the industrial revolution was very profitable. But for most people industrial commoditization seems to have been experienced as a tragedy. The earth became commoditized into a collection of resources to be exploited. Human life became commoditized into labor or work time and was also priced according to supply and demand. All these became means which the new economy used to generate more capital.3,4
From a religious perspective, when things become treated as commodities they lose their spiritual dimension. The commoditized understanding induces a sharp duality between humans and the rest of the world. All value is created by our goals and desires. The rest of the world has no meaning or value except when it serves our purposes. This now seems quite natural to us, because we have been conditioned to think and live this way. For Buddhism, however, such a dualistic understanding is delusive. The world is a web; nothing has any reality of its own apart from that web, because everything is dependent on everything else. The concept of interdependence challenges our usual sense of separation from the world. The feeling that ‘I am here and the world is out there’, is at the root of our Dukkha and it alienates us from the world where we live. This non-dual interdependence of things was experienced by the Buddha when he became enlightened. The Buddhist path works by helping us to realize our interdependence and non-duality with the world and to live in harmony with it.5,6,7,8
Conclusion
Buddhism shows us the possibility of a better way of leading a stress-free life. However, from a materialistic perspective and the "social science" of economics, such philosophical and spiritual understanding of life are considered as superstitious and escapist.5,6,8
The teachings of the Buddha are based on a different way of understanding the relationship between ourselves and the world. From the Buddhist perspective, economic growth and consumerism are unsatisfactory alternatives because they evade the basic problem of life, which is suffering, by distracting us with symbolic substitutes such as money, status and power.
References
1. Quang, T.T. 2009. Buddhism and Globalization. Bliss and Growth. Blag Biz.
2. Loy, D. 2007. A Buddhist View of Globalization. Buddhist Peace Fellowship. Japan: Bunkyo University.
3. Power, G. 1997. Globalization and its Discontents in Development. The Journal of the Society for International Development 40(2).
4. Schumacher, E.F. 1975. Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered. New York: Harper.
5. Payutto, P.A. 1994. Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place. (translated by Dhammavijaya and Bruce Evans) Second Edition. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation.
6. Sizemore, R.F., Swearer, D.K., ed. 1990. Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina.
7. David R. Loy, "The Religion of the Market" in Visions of a New Earth: Religious Perspectives on Population, Consumption and Ecology, edited by Harold Coward and Dan Maguire (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1999.
8. Hodge, H.N. 2009. Buddhism in the Global Economy. Berkeley, US: ISEC.
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBALIZATION
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBALIZATION
ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO
The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong &
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,
SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,
KOLKATA – 700 091
WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Tel: +91-33-23215586
Mobile: +919434485543
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBALIZATION
Abstract
Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also to lead to a more democratic society.
Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.
Key words: Buddha, Globalization, Buddhism, Applied.
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBALIZATION
Introduction
The issue of globalization is directly or indirectly affecting all our lives. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also lead to the formation of a more democratic society. Unfortunately, the effects of the globalization of business and trade are often disastrous for underdeveloped nations. These nations provide the raw materials and cheap labor which are necessary to make globalization prosperous for the more developed nations. Though there are successes in the process of globalization, there is much unrest in the poor and underdeveloped nations which are deep in debt and suffer internal conflict, poverty, droughts and famines.1,2
The concept of globalization is important for Buddhism because Buddhism is a global, world faith. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.1,2
A Buddhist Perception of Globalization
The Buddha emphasized that we all have both unwholesome and unwholesome traits (kusala / akusalamula). The important issue is the practical matter of how to reduce our unwholesome characteristics and develop the more wholesome ones. This process is symbolized by the lotus flower. Although rooted in the mud and muck at the bottom of a pond, the lotus grows upwards to bloom on the surface, thus representing our potential to purify ourselves.5 Our unwholesome characteristics are usually summarized as the "three poisons" or three roots of evil: lobha - greed, dosa - anger and moha - delusion. The goal of the Buddhist way of life is to eliminate these roots by transforming them into their positive counterparts: greed into generosity (Dāna), anger into loving-kindness (metta), and delusion into wisdom (prajna).3,4
Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. This results in the progressive integration of economies of nations across the world through the unrestricted flow of global trade and investment. The mainstream approach is generally rooted in the underlying assumption that globalization brings jobs, technology, income and wealth to societies. In order to make this strategy of globalization successful, all the societies must be willing to submit to the principles of the free market—limiting public spending, privatizing public services, removing barriers to foreign investment, strengthening export production and controlling inflation. However, this is very difficult task to achieve within a short span of time. As a result, most often, globalized production has led to a litany of social and ecological crises: poverty and powerlessness of the majority of people, destruction of community, depletion of natural resources and unendurable pollution.1,2,3
Our obsession with economic growth seems natural to us because we have forgotten the hierarchy of "needs" that we often take for granted. We project our own values when we assume that a person must be unhappy by presuming that the only way to become happy is to start on the treadmill of a lifestyle increasingly preoccupied with consumption. However, the importance of self-limitation, which requires some degree of non-attachment, is an essential human attribute to remain happy according to Buddhism. This is expressed better in a Tibetan Buddhist analogy. The world is full of thorns and sharp stones (and now broken glass too). What should we do about this? One solution is to pave over the entire earth, but a simpler alternative is to wear shoes. "Paving the whole planet" is a good metaphor for how our collective technological and economic project is attempting to make us happy. Without the wisdom of self-limitation, we will not be satisfied even when we have used up all the earth's resources. The other solution is for our minds to learn how to "wear shoes," so that our collective ends become an expression of the renewable means that the biosphere provides.3,4,5
From a religious perspective, when things become treated as commodities they lose their spiritual dimension. The commoditized understanding induces a sharp duality between humans and the rest of the world. All value is created by our goals and desires. The rest of the world has no meaning or value except when it serves our purposes. This now seems quite natural to us, because we have been conditioned to think and live this way. For Buddhism, however, such a dualistic understanding is delusive. The world is a web; nothing has any reality of its own apart from that web, because everything is dependent on everything else. The concept of interdependence challenges our usual sense of separation from the world. The feeling that ‘I am here and the world is out there’, is at the root of our Dukkha and it alienates us from the world where we live. This non-dual interdependence of things was experienced by the Buddha when he became enlightened. The Buddhist path works by helping us to realize our interdependence and non-duality with the world and to live in harmony with it.3,4,5,6
Conclusion
Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Some scholars recommend ‘Post-Buddhism’ as a proper term for the new infusion of ideas and practices in an increasingly globalized world. However, modern Buddhism has showed its potential to transcend the crucial problems of modernity.
References
1. Quang, T.T. 2009. Buddhism and Globalization. Bliss and Growth. Blag Biz.
2. Loy, D. 2007. A Buddhist View of Globalization. Buddhist Peace Fellowship. Japan: Bunkyo University.
3. Payutto, P.A. 1994. Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place. (translated by Dhammavijaya and Bruce Evans) Second Edition. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation.
4. Sizemore, R.F., Swearer, D.K., ed. 1990. Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina.
5. Hodge, H.N. 2009. Buddhism in the Global Economy. Berkeley, US: ISEC.
6. David R. Loy, "The Religion of the Market" in Visions of a New Earth: Religious Perspectives on Population, Consumption and Ecology, edited by Harold Coward and Dan Maguire (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1999.
ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO
The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong &
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,
SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,
KOLKATA – 700 091
WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Tel: +91-33-23215586
Mobile: +919434485543
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBALIZATION
Abstract
Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also to lead to a more democratic society.
Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.
Key words: Buddha, Globalization, Buddhism, Applied.
APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBALIZATION
Introduction
The issue of globalization is directly or indirectly affecting all our lives. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also lead to the formation of a more democratic society. Unfortunately, the effects of the globalization of business and trade are often disastrous for underdeveloped nations. These nations provide the raw materials and cheap labor which are necessary to make globalization prosperous for the more developed nations. Though there are successes in the process of globalization, there is much unrest in the poor and underdeveloped nations which are deep in debt and suffer internal conflict, poverty, droughts and famines.1,2
The concept of globalization is important for Buddhism because Buddhism is a global, world faith. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.1,2
A Buddhist Perception of Globalization
The Buddha emphasized that we all have both unwholesome and unwholesome traits (kusala / akusalamula). The important issue is the practical matter of how to reduce our unwholesome characteristics and develop the more wholesome ones. This process is symbolized by the lotus flower. Although rooted in the mud and muck at the bottom of a pond, the lotus grows upwards to bloom on the surface, thus representing our potential to purify ourselves.5 Our unwholesome characteristics are usually summarized as the "three poisons" or three roots of evil: lobha - greed, dosa - anger and moha - delusion. The goal of the Buddhist way of life is to eliminate these roots by transforming them into their positive counterparts: greed into generosity (Dāna), anger into loving-kindness (metta), and delusion into wisdom (prajna).3,4
Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. This results in the progressive integration of economies of nations across the world through the unrestricted flow of global trade and investment. The mainstream approach is generally rooted in the underlying assumption that globalization brings jobs, technology, income and wealth to societies. In order to make this strategy of globalization successful, all the societies must be willing to submit to the principles of the free market—limiting public spending, privatizing public services, removing barriers to foreign investment, strengthening export production and controlling inflation. However, this is very difficult task to achieve within a short span of time. As a result, most often, globalized production has led to a litany of social and ecological crises: poverty and powerlessness of the majority of people, destruction of community, depletion of natural resources and unendurable pollution.1,2,3
Our obsession with economic growth seems natural to us because we have forgotten the hierarchy of "needs" that we often take for granted. We project our own values when we assume that a person must be unhappy by presuming that the only way to become happy is to start on the treadmill of a lifestyle increasingly preoccupied with consumption. However, the importance of self-limitation, which requires some degree of non-attachment, is an essential human attribute to remain happy according to Buddhism. This is expressed better in a Tibetan Buddhist analogy. The world is full of thorns and sharp stones (and now broken glass too). What should we do about this? One solution is to pave over the entire earth, but a simpler alternative is to wear shoes. "Paving the whole planet" is a good metaphor for how our collective technological and economic project is attempting to make us happy. Without the wisdom of self-limitation, we will not be satisfied even when we have used up all the earth's resources. The other solution is for our minds to learn how to "wear shoes," so that our collective ends become an expression of the renewable means that the biosphere provides.3,4,5
From a religious perspective, when things become treated as commodities they lose their spiritual dimension. The commoditized understanding induces a sharp duality between humans and the rest of the world. All value is created by our goals and desires. The rest of the world has no meaning or value except when it serves our purposes. This now seems quite natural to us, because we have been conditioned to think and live this way. For Buddhism, however, such a dualistic understanding is delusive. The world is a web; nothing has any reality of its own apart from that web, because everything is dependent on everything else. The concept of interdependence challenges our usual sense of separation from the world. The feeling that ‘I am here and the world is out there’, is at the root of our Dukkha and it alienates us from the world where we live. This non-dual interdependence of things was experienced by the Buddha when he became enlightened. The Buddhist path works by helping us to realize our interdependence and non-duality with the world and to live in harmony with it.3,4,5,6
Conclusion
Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Some scholars recommend ‘Post-Buddhism’ as a proper term for the new infusion of ideas and practices in an increasingly globalized world. However, modern Buddhism has showed its potential to transcend the crucial problems of modernity.
References
1. Quang, T.T. 2009. Buddhism and Globalization. Bliss and Growth. Blag Biz.
2. Loy, D. 2007. A Buddhist View of Globalization. Buddhist Peace Fellowship. Japan: Bunkyo University.
3. Payutto, P.A. 1994. Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place. (translated by Dhammavijaya and Bruce Evans) Second Edition. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation.
4. Sizemore, R.F., Swearer, D.K., ed. 1990. Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina.
5. Hodge, H.N. 2009. Buddhism in the Global Economy. Berkeley, US: ISEC.
6. David R. Loy, "The Religion of the Market" in Visions of a New Earth: Religious Perspectives on Population, Consumption and Ecology, edited by Harold Coward and Dan Maguire (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1999.
Thursday, October 29, 2009
MODERN HINDUISM IS A RESTATEMENT OF BUDDHISM
MODERN HINDUISM IS A RESTATEMENT OF BUDDHISM
ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Hong Kong, 2009
Communication Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,
Salt Lake City, Sector-2,
Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)
MODERN HINDUISM IS A RESTATEMENT OF BUDDHISM
Abstract
Due to the striking similarities in the teachings of Buddhism and modern Hinduism, a group of modern scholars still believe that Buddhism is a restatement of Hinduism. But this notion is absolutely false as Hinduism is a much later development after the disappearance of Buddhism from India.
There is enough historical evidence that Buddhism paved the way for refining the teachings of Hinduism. The finer aspects of Buddhism were later incorporated into the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads by Adi Shankaryacharya during the revival of Hinduism in 8th century A.D. As a result of this, we do not find any major difference between the teachings of Buddhism and Hinduism in modern era. Thus, modern Hinduism is actually a restatement of Buddhism.
Key words: Buddhism, Restatement, Modern, Brahmanism, Hinduism.
MODERN HINDUISM IS A RESTATEMENT OF BUDDHISM
Introduction
Conflicts of opinions prevail while exploring the parallel teachings of Buddhism and modern Hinduism. Some scholars cherish the opinion that Buddhism in India subsequently got incorporated into the Hinduism. They believe that modern Hinduism in India is a new form of ancient Buddhism.1,2,3
Due to the striking similarities in the teachings of Buddhism and modern Hinduism, there is another group of scholars who uphold the theory that Buddhism is a restatement of Hinduism.1,2,4 But this notion is absolutely false as Hinduism is a much later development after the disappearance of Buddhism from India. If someone has to relate any ancient religion in India with Buddhism, it should be the existing Brahmanism which paved way to the introduction of Buddhism in India by Sakyamuni Buddha during the 6th century B.C., who was a historical personality.
Buddhism was a Critical Response to the Existing Brahmanism
Buddhism should be viewed as a critical response to the existing Brahmanism. Buddhism came into existence in order to wipe off the existing four-tier caste system in India laid down by the Aryans. As the status of women was remarkably subdued and deplorable during the period of Brahmanism, Buddhism came to the rescue by upholding the women’s rights and focused on empowerment of women in the society. Sakyamuni Buddha was the first historical personality who rose against all odds to abolish discrimination and violence against women in the existing Indian society.1,2,5
The Revival of Hinduism
The Vedic revival during the 8th century A.D. was referred to as the revival of Hinduism by the Western Scholars. This was initiated by Adi Shankaracharya in the Gangetic plains of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The Hindus of Rajasthan also participated in this hostile revival activity. After the death of Harshavardhana, the Rajputs were arising on horizons of North India. The Rajputs belonged to the lineage from among the remnants of Hunas and other foreign hordes which were broken down by the activities of kings like Baladitya and the local tibals. The Rajputs were made prominent by the Brahmins for the specific purpose of suppressing Buddhism by use of force. They subsequently dominated the later part of the history of India and played a key role in the revival of Hinduism.1,2,3,5
During this time, the popular devotion to the Buddha was sought to be replaced by devotion to Hindu gods such as Rama and Krishna. The existing version of the Mahabharata was written in this period when the decline of Buddhism had already begun. It was specially meant for the lower caste community (Shudras), most of whom were Buddhists, in order to attract them away from Buddhism. However, Brahmanism still prevented the Shudras from having access to the Vedas. The Mahabharata was possibly rewritten to placate the Buddhist Shudras and to compensate them for this discrimination. The Mahabharata incorporated some of the humanistic elements of Buddhism to win over the Shudras. Overall, it played the role of bolstering the Brahminical hegemony. Thus, Krishna, in the Gita, was made to say that a person should not violate the divinely ordained law of caste. Eklavya was made to slice off his thumb by Drona, who found it a gross violation of dharma that a mere tribal boy should excel the Kshatriya Arjun in archery.6,7
The various writers of the puranas carried out this systematic campaign of hatred, slander and calumny against the Buddhists. The Brahannardiya Purana made it a principal sin for Brahmins to enter the house of a Buddhist even at times of great peril. The Vishnu Purana alleged that the Buddha as Maha Moha or the great seducer. It further cautioned against the sin of conversing with Buddhists and lays. Those who merely talked to Buddhist ascetics should be sent to hell. In the Gaya Mahatmaya, the concluding section of the Vayu Purana, the town of Gaya was identified as Gaya Asura, a demon who had attained such holiness that all those who saw him or touched him went straight to heaven. Clearly, this demon was related to none other than the Buddha who preached a simple way for all, including the oppressed castes, to attain salvation.7
The Vayu Purana story went on to add that Yama, the king of hell, grew jealous. This was possibly because less people were now entering his domains. He appealed to the gods to limit the powers of Asura Gaya. The gods, led by Vishnu, were able to restrict his powers by placing a massive stone on the demon’s head. This monstrous legend signified the ultimate capture of Buddhism’s most holy centre by its inveterate foes.7
Kushinagar, also known as Harramba, was one of the most important Buddhist centres as the Buddha breathed his last there. The Brahmins, envious of the prosperity of this pilgrim town, invented an absurd theory in order to discourage people from going there. They spread a rumor that if one died in Harramba, he would go to hell. However, if one died in Kashi, the citadel of Brahmanism, he would go straight to the heaven. This belief got deeply rooted in the minds of the local community. So, when the Sufi saint Kabir died in 1518 AD at Maghar, not far from Kushinagar, some of his Hindu followers refused to erect any memorial in his honor there and instead set it up at Kashi. However, Kabir's Muslim followers were less superstitious and they set up a tomb for him at Maghar itself.6,7
The Tendency of Hinduism to Absorb its Rival Faiths
The tendency of Hinduism to absorb rival faiths was evident from the fact that many elements from other faiths had also gone into the making of Hinduism. While some scholars focus on outright persecution, others speak of a long process during which Buddhist practices became absorbed into Hinduism. Though the doctrine of ‘ahimsa’ or non-violence had originated with the Buddha and had certainly found its greatest exposition in the Buddha’s teachings, but by the second half of the 1st millennium A.D. it had become an integral part of the Hindu teachings. However, it is still not certain whether the Buddha was absorbed into the Hindu pantheon as a gesture of compromise or as an attempt of divide in order to reduce the overwhelming might of Buddhism or whether Hinduism was eager to embrace as its own, certain values that Buddhism stood for against the short-comings of Brahmanism.1,2,3,5,6
The simplicity of the Buddha’s message in emphasizing its stress on equality and crusade against the bloody and costly sacrifices and ritualism of Brahmanism had attracted the oppressed casts in large numbers. The Brahminical revivalists understood the need to appropriate some of these finer aspects of Buddhism and discarded some of the worst of their own practices so as to be able to win over the masses back to the Brahminical fold. Imitating the Buddhists in this regard, the Brahmins, who were once voracious beef-eaters, had turned into vegetarians.7
Adi Shankaracharya Had Preserved Buddhism by Incorporating It into Hinduism
The great Brahmin philosopher, Adi Shankaracharya (c. 788-820 AD), took keen interest in learning the inner aspects of Buddhist philosophy. He was alleged by some scholars to have hated Buddhism and engaged the Buddhist monks in public debates and each time he had emerged triumphant. But this theory was far from truth for the simple reason that, had he successfully defeated the Buddhist monks in debates all the time and had no faith in Buddhism, then there was no logic behind his undertaking the initiative to incorporate the finer aspects of Buddhist teachings into Hinduism. So, by the time he had invited the Buddhist monks in public debates, he had already studied Buddhism and developed an immense respect for the teachings of the Buddha. 1,2,3,5
He had also realized that all the Buddhist monks with whom he had debated were not well-versed with the teachings of the Buddha. Due to their ignorance, they were unable to preach the true meaning of the doctrine of the Buddha in an effective manner. So, he took the initiative to include the finer aspects of Buddhism into the core teachings of Hinduism. Under his supervision, the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and Puranas were rewritten incorporating these new aspects. The Buddha was also transformed into an avatara (descent) of Vishnu. 1,2,3,5
The monastic practices had been unknown in Brahmanism, but this practice was also initiated under the leadership of Adi Shankaracharya. He had established ‘maths’ or monasteries at Badrinath in the north, Dwarka in the west, Sringeri in the south, and Puri in the east.1,2,3
Modern Hinduism is a Restatement of Buddhism
The finer aspects of Buddhism were later incorporated into the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads by Adi Shankaryacharya during the revival of Hinduism in 8th century A.D. As a result of this, we do not find any major difference between the teachings of Buddhism and Hinduism in modern era. Lay people and many scholars often get deceived by ignoring the chronological order of historical development of Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism and they are unable to make any distinction between these. We should understand that Hinduism was a later development after Buddhism. There is enough historical evidence that Buddhism paved the way for refining the teachings of Hinduism which came into existence after the disappearance of Buddhism from India. We must always remember that the finer aspects of Buddhism had been later incorporated into Hinduism under the supervision of Adi Shankaracharya during the 8th century A.D. 1,2,3
So, by observing the strikingly similar teachings in both these religions, it would be wiser to conclude that modern Hinduism is a restatement of ancient Buddhism. The reverse of this statement is never true on historical perspectives, as an earlier religion cannot predict or copy the teachings of a future religion.1,2,3
Conclusions
The Brahmins could never deny or disrespect the inner truths in the teachings of the Buddha in spite of having hatred against Buddhism as a religion. So, the subsequent absorption of the Buddha into Vishnu’s pantheon represented some sort of a compromise between the Brahmins and the Buddhists on moral and philosophical grounds. Buddhism stood for to promote peace and harmony in the society. This had been later incorporated into certain strands of modern Hinduism in order to make it more refined and acceptable to the society. Thus, the Buddha was finally given his just dues. From historical perspective, it is now clearly evident that Buddhism was never conquered on moral grounds and critical arguments, but was actually driven off by sheer force and might.1,2,3,5,6
Though the Buddha is now incorporated into modern Hinduism as Lord Vishnu’s pantheon, but he should not be regarded as a god of the Hindu religion. It needs to be emphasized once again that the Buddha was never a mythological figure as Lord Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma or Rama, but he was a real historical personality who devoted his entire life to eliminate the sufferings of all sentient beings.4
References
1. Lal, V. 2004. Buddhism’s Disappearance from India [serial online]. [cited 2009 August 26]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL:
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Religions/paths/BuddhismDisappear.doc.
2. Jaini, P.S., Narain A.K., ed., 1980. The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Survival of Jainism: A Study in Contrast. Studies in History of Buddhism. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Company:181-91.
3. Ahir, D.C. 2005. Buddhism Declined in India: How and Why? Delhi: B.R. Publishing.
4. Kantowsky, D. 2003. Buddhists in India Today: Descriptions, Pictures and Documents. Delhi: Manohar Publications: 156.
5. Goyal, S.R. 1987. A History of Indian Buddhism. Meerut: 394.
6. Beal, S. 1884. Si-Yu Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World. London: Trubner & Co., reprint ed., Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.
7. Pakistan Defence. 2008. Disappearance of Buddhism from "Non Violent India": An Untold Story. Daily Muslims. [serial online]. [cited 2009 October 8]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.defence.pk/forums/current-events-social-issues/9222-disappearance-buddhism-non-violent-india-untold-story.html
ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Hong Kong, 2009
Communication Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,
Salt Lake City, Sector-2,
Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)
MODERN HINDUISM IS A RESTATEMENT OF BUDDHISM
Abstract
Due to the striking similarities in the teachings of Buddhism and modern Hinduism, a group of modern scholars still believe that Buddhism is a restatement of Hinduism. But this notion is absolutely false as Hinduism is a much later development after the disappearance of Buddhism from India.
There is enough historical evidence that Buddhism paved the way for refining the teachings of Hinduism. The finer aspects of Buddhism were later incorporated into the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads by Adi Shankaryacharya during the revival of Hinduism in 8th century A.D. As a result of this, we do not find any major difference between the teachings of Buddhism and Hinduism in modern era. Thus, modern Hinduism is actually a restatement of Buddhism.
Key words: Buddhism, Restatement, Modern, Brahmanism, Hinduism.
MODERN HINDUISM IS A RESTATEMENT OF BUDDHISM
Introduction
Conflicts of opinions prevail while exploring the parallel teachings of Buddhism and modern Hinduism. Some scholars cherish the opinion that Buddhism in India subsequently got incorporated into the Hinduism. They believe that modern Hinduism in India is a new form of ancient Buddhism.1,2,3
Due to the striking similarities in the teachings of Buddhism and modern Hinduism, there is another group of scholars who uphold the theory that Buddhism is a restatement of Hinduism.1,2,4 But this notion is absolutely false as Hinduism is a much later development after the disappearance of Buddhism from India. If someone has to relate any ancient religion in India with Buddhism, it should be the existing Brahmanism which paved way to the introduction of Buddhism in India by Sakyamuni Buddha during the 6th century B.C., who was a historical personality.
Buddhism was a Critical Response to the Existing Brahmanism
Buddhism should be viewed as a critical response to the existing Brahmanism. Buddhism came into existence in order to wipe off the existing four-tier caste system in India laid down by the Aryans. As the status of women was remarkably subdued and deplorable during the period of Brahmanism, Buddhism came to the rescue by upholding the women’s rights and focused on empowerment of women in the society. Sakyamuni Buddha was the first historical personality who rose against all odds to abolish discrimination and violence against women in the existing Indian society.1,2,5
The Revival of Hinduism
The Vedic revival during the 8th century A.D. was referred to as the revival of Hinduism by the Western Scholars. This was initiated by Adi Shankaracharya in the Gangetic plains of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The Hindus of Rajasthan also participated in this hostile revival activity. After the death of Harshavardhana, the Rajputs were arising on horizons of North India. The Rajputs belonged to the lineage from among the remnants of Hunas and other foreign hordes which were broken down by the activities of kings like Baladitya and the local tibals. The Rajputs were made prominent by the Brahmins for the specific purpose of suppressing Buddhism by use of force. They subsequently dominated the later part of the history of India and played a key role in the revival of Hinduism.1,2,3,5
During this time, the popular devotion to the Buddha was sought to be replaced by devotion to Hindu gods such as Rama and Krishna. The existing version of the Mahabharata was written in this period when the decline of Buddhism had already begun. It was specially meant for the lower caste community (Shudras), most of whom were Buddhists, in order to attract them away from Buddhism. However, Brahmanism still prevented the Shudras from having access to the Vedas. The Mahabharata was possibly rewritten to placate the Buddhist Shudras and to compensate them for this discrimination. The Mahabharata incorporated some of the humanistic elements of Buddhism to win over the Shudras. Overall, it played the role of bolstering the Brahminical hegemony. Thus, Krishna, in the Gita, was made to say that a person should not violate the divinely ordained law of caste. Eklavya was made to slice off his thumb by Drona, who found it a gross violation of dharma that a mere tribal boy should excel the Kshatriya Arjun in archery.6,7
The various writers of the puranas carried out this systematic campaign of hatred, slander and calumny against the Buddhists. The Brahannardiya Purana made it a principal sin for Brahmins to enter the house of a Buddhist even at times of great peril. The Vishnu Purana alleged that the Buddha as Maha Moha or the great seducer. It further cautioned against the sin of conversing with Buddhists and lays. Those who merely talked to Buddhist ascetics should be sent to hell. In the Gaya Mahatmaya, the concluding section of the Vayu Purana, the town of Gaya was identified as Gaya Asura, a demon who had attained such holiness that all those who saw him or touched him went straight to heaven. Clearly, this demon was related to none other than the Buddha who preached a simple way for all, including the oppressed castes, to attain salvation.7
The Vayu Purana story went on to add that Yama, the king of hell, grew jealous. This was possibly because less people were now entering his domains. He appealed to the gods to limit the powers of Asura Gaya. The gods, led by Vishnu, were able to restrict his powers by placing a massive stone on the demon’s head. This monstrous legend signified the ultimate capture of Buddhism’s most holy centre by its inveterate foes.7
Kushinagar, also known as Harramba, was one of the most important Buddhist centres as the Buddha breathed his last there. The Brahmins, envious of the prosperity of this pilgrim town, invented an absurd theory in order to discourage people from going there. They spread a rumor that if one died in Harramba, he would go to hell. However, if one died in Kashi, the citadel of Brahmanism, he would go straight to the heaven. This belief got deeply rooted in the minds of the local community. So, when the Sufi saint Kabir died in 1518 AD at Maghar, not far from Kushinagar, some of his Hindu followers refused to erect any memorial in his honor there and instead set it up at Kashi. However, Kabir's Muslim followers were less superstitious and they set up a tomb for him at Maghar itself.6,7
The Tendency of Hinduism to Absorb its Rival Faiths
The tendency of Hinduism to absorb rival faiths was evident from the fact that many elements from other faiths had also gone into the making of Hinduism. While some scholars focus on outright persecution, others speak of a long process during which Buddhist practices became absorbed into Hinduism. Though the doctrine of ‘ahimsa’ or non-violence had originated with the Buddha and had certainly found its greatest exposition in the Buddha’s teachings, but by the second half of the 1st millennium A.D. it had become an integral part of the Hindu teachings. However, it is still not certain whether the Buddha was absorbed into the Hindu pantheon as a gesture of compromise or as an attempt of divide in order to reduce the overwhelming might of Buddhism or whether Hinduism was eager to embrace as its own, certain values that Buddhism stood for against the short-comings of Brahmanism.1,2,3,5,6
The simplicity of the Buddha’s message in emphasizing its stress on equality and crusade against the bloody and costly sacrifices and ritualism of Brahmanism had attracted the oppressed casts in large numbers. The Brahminical revivalists understood the need to appropriate some of these finer aspects of Buddhism and discarded some of the worst of their own practices so as to be able to win over the masses back to the Brahminical fold. Imitating the Buddhists in this regard, the Brahmins, who were once voracious beef-eaters, had turned into vegetarians.7
Adi Shankaracharya Had Preserved Buddhism by Incorporating It into Hinduism
The great Brahmin philosopher, Adi Shankaracharya (c. 788-820 AD), took keen interest in learning the inner aspects of Buddhist philosophy. He was alleged by some scholars to have hated Buddhism and engaged the Buddhist monks in public debates and each time he had emerged triumphant. But this theory was far from truth for the simple reason that, had he successfully defeated the Buddhist monks in debates all the time and had no faith in Buddhism, then there was no logic behind his undertaking the initiative to incorporate the finer aspects of Buddhist teachings into Hinduism. So, by the time he had invited the Buddhist monks in public debates, he had already studied Buddhism and developed an immense respect for the teachings of the Buddha. 1,2,3,5
He had also realized that all the Buddhist monks with whom he had debated were not well-versed with the teachings of the Buddha. Due to their ignorance, they were unable to preach the true meaning of the doctrine of the Buddha in an effective manner. So, he took the initiative to include the finer aspects of Buddhism into the core teachings of Hinduism. Under his supervision, the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and Puranas were rewritten incorporating these new aspects. The Buddha was also transformed into an avatara (descent) of Vishnu. 1,2,3,5
The monastic practices had been unknown in Brahmanism, but this practice was also initiated under the leadership of Adi Shankaracharya. He had established ‘maths’ or monasteries at Badrinath in the north, Dwarka in the west, Sringeri in the south, and Puri in the east.1,2,3
Modern Hinduism is a Restatement of Buddhism
The finer aspects of Buddhism were later incorporated into the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads by Adi Shankaryacharya during the revival of Hinduism in 8th century A.D. As a result of this, we do not find any major difference between the teachings of Buddhism and Hinduism in modern era. Lay people and many scholars often get deceived by ignoring the chronological order of historical development of Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism and they are unable to make any distinction between these. We should understand that Hinduism was a later development after Buddhism. There is enough historical evidence that Buddhism paved the way for refining the teachings of Hinduism which came into existence after the disappearance of Buddhism from India. We must always remember that the finer aspects of Buddhism had been later incorporated into Hinduism under the supervision of Adi Shankaracharya during the 8th century A.D. 1,2,3
So, by observing the strikingly similar teachings in both these religions, it would be wiser to conclude that modern Hinduism is a restatement of ancient Buddhism. The reverse of this statement is never true on historical perspectives, as an earlier religion cannot predict or copy the teachings of a future religion.1,2,3
Conclusions
The Brahmins could never deny or disrespect the inner truths in the teachings of the Buddha in spite of having hatred against Buddhism as a religion. So, the subsequent absorption of the Buddha into Vishnu’s pantheon represented some sort of a compromise between the Brahmins and the Buddhists on moral and philosophical grounds. Buddhism stood for to promote peace and harmony in the society. This had been later incorporated into certain strands of modern Hinduism in order to make it more refined and acceptable to the society. Thus, the Buddha was finally given his just dues. From historical perspective, it is now clearly evident that Buddhism was never conquered on moral grounds and critical arguments, but was actually driven off by sheer force and might.1,2,3,5,6
Though the Buddha is now incorporated into modern Hinduism as Lord Vishnu’s pantheon, but he should not be regarded as a god of the Hindu religion. It needs to be emphasized once again that the Buddha was never a mythological figure as Lord Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma or Rama, but he was a real historical personality who devoted his entire life to eliminate the sufferings of all sentient beings.4
References
1. Lal, V. 2004. Buddhism’s Disappearance from India [serial online]. [cited 2009 August 26]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL:
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Religions/paths/BuddhismDisappear.doc.
2. Jaini, P.S., Narain A.K., ed., 1980. The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Survival of Jainism: A Study in Contrast. Studies in History of Buddhism. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Company:181-91.
3. Ahir, D.C. 2005. Buddhism Declined in India: How and Why? Delhi: B.R. Publishing.
4. Kantowsky, D. 2003. Buddhists in India Today: Descriptions, Pictures and Documents. Delhi: Manohar Publications: 156.
5. Goyal, S.R. 1987. A History of Indian Buddhism. Meerut: 394.
6. Beal, S. 1884. Si-Yu Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World. London: Trubner & Co., reprint ed., Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.
7. Pakistan Defence. 2008. Disappearance of Buddhism from "Non Violent India": An Untold Story. Daily Muslims. [serial online]. [cited 2009 October 8]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.defence.pk/forums/current-events-social-issues/9222-disappearance-buddhism-non-violent-india-untold-story.html
Tuesday, October 27, 2009
THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ ) IN MODERN MATHEMATICS
THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ )
IN MODERN MATHEMATICS
ANKUR BARUA, N. TESTERMAN, M.A. BASILIO
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen
Hong Kong, 2009
Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,
SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,
KOLKATA – 700 091
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Tel: +91-33-23215586
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Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ )
IN MODERN MATHEMATICS
Abstract
The concept of ‘zero’ or ‘sunyam’ originated in ancient India. It was derived from the concept of ‘void’ or ‘śūnyatā ’ propagated by Nāgārjuna through his Doctrine of Emptiness or ‘śūnyatā ’. The inclusion of ‘zero’ in mathematics paved way for development of the decimal system for financial transactions.
The Decimal System of numerals is known as Indo-Arabic numerals even today. But it is actually a misnomer. The concept of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ first evolved in India and was later adopted by the Arabs. The archeological evidence of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ were already found on the Rock Edits of Ashoka (256 B.C.) which was curved several centuries earlier than Arab invasion.
Though the concept of ‘zero’ appeared in the Indian history much earlier, but Nāgārjuna gave a new dimension of ‘nullity’ or ‘emptiness’ to the notion of ‘zero’ and made it more meaningful with regard to our philosophical understandings.
Key words: Emptiness, Mathematics, Zero, Nullity, Void, Nāgārjuna, Śūnyatā.
THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ )
IN MODERN MATHEMATICS
Introduction
The concept of ‘zero’ or ‘sunyam’ originated in ancient India. It was derived from the concept of ‘void’ or ‘śūnyatā ’ propagated by Nāgārjuna through his Doctrine of Emptiness or ‘śūnyatā ’.1 However, the concept of ‘void’ existed in Hindu Philosophy before Nāgārjuna. There also existed the derivation of a symbol for it. The early Vedic concept of ‘śūnyatā ’or ‘void’ was later refined by Nāgārjuna who had imparted an intensive philosophical meaning to it.1 Nāgārjuna’s doctrine of ‘śūnyatā’ provided the foundation for Mahāyāna and Vajrāyāna (Tantrāyāna) forms of Buddhism. This Doctrine of Emptiness had deep rooted origin in the Buddha’s Doctrine of Dependent Origination or Impermanence. The concept of ‘śūnyatā’ was influenced by South-east Asian culture through the Buddhist concept of ‘Nibbana’ which means 'attaining salvation by merging into the void of eternity'.2,3
A concept and symbol that connotes nullity represents a qualitative advancement of the human capacity of abstraction. In absence of a concept of ‘zero’ there could have been only positive numerals in computation, the inclusion of ‘zero’ in mathematics opened up a new dimension of negative numerals and gave a cut-off point and a standard in the measurability of qualities whose extremes are still unknown to human beings, such as temperature. Though the exact age of origin of ‘zero’ in Indian mathematics is still unknown, but the archeological evidence of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ during the Buddhist period were found on the Rock Edits of Ashoka (256 B.C.).4,5,6
The Buddhist Concept of ‘Śūnyatā’ or ‘Emptiness’
In early Buddhism, the term ‘suññatā’ or ‘śūnyatā’ is used primarily in connection with the ‘no-self’ (anatman) doctrine to denote that the Five Aggregates (skandhas) are ‘empty’ of the permanent self or soul which is erroneously imputed to them.1 The doctrine of emptiness, however, received its fullest elaboration by Nāgārjuna, who wielded it skillfully to destroy the substantiality conceptions of the Abhidharma schools of the Theravāda. Since there cannot be anything that is not the Buddha-nature (buddhatā), all that appears is in truth devoid of characteristics. The doctrine of emptiness is the central tenet of the Mādhyamaka School. A statement of Nāgārjuna's views in support of it may be found in his Mūla-Mādhyamaka-Nārikā.2,3,7
Nāgārjuna is regarded as the founder of the Mādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy which he had established during the 2nd-3rd Century A.D. The ‘Mulamadhyamaka-Karika’ ("Fundamentals of the Middle Way") is his major work. It was originally composed in Sanskrit. The Sanskrit as well as early Tibetan versions of the work had survived without significant damage over the ages along with the later Chinese translations. Several complete English translations of the ‘Karika’ are available in recent times.2,3,7,8
Evolution of the Concept of ‘Zero’ in Modern Mathematics
In mathematics the notion of emptiness finds expression in the number ‘zero’, as well as in contemporary set theory. The concept of ‘zero’ was discovered in India prior to the third century A.D. The "Arabic" number system we use today is neither Arabic nor Greek in origin. In fact, the digits 0123456789 go back to India where they were first created. The ancient Indian number system distinguished itself from other positional systems by virtue of allowing the use of ‘zero’ as a legitimate number. The number ‘zero’ did not exist in Greek mathematics, because the Greeks were essentially geometricians and had no use for the mathematical concept of a non-entity. The concept of ‘zero’ also did not exist in Egyptian mathematics. The Arabs, who encountered the Indian number system during their early conquests in India, found it superior to their own traditional system which used alphabets, and had adapted it to develop Islamic mathematics. The Arabic word for ‘zero’ is "sifr", meaning "empty." In the 12th century, the Italian mathematician Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci studied Arabian algebra and introduced the Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europe. The word "sifr" got transformed into "zephirum" in Latin and subsequently, ‘zero’ in English.1,5
During the first three centuries A.D., the ancient Indians were already using a decimal positional system on a wide scale. In this system, the numerals in different positions represent different numbers and here, one of the ten symbols used was a fully functional ‘zero’. They called it 'Sunyam'. The word and its meaning ‘void’ were obviously borrowed from its use in philosophical literature. Eventually, the Decimal System of calculation evolved from this, which laid the foundation for all the modern arithmetic, mathematics and statistics. 1,4,5,6
The Babylonian System of Numerals
In all early civilizations, the first expression of mathematical understanding appears in the form of counting systems. Numbers in very early societies were typically represented by groups of lines, though later different numbers came to be assigned specific numeral names and symbols (as in India) or were designated by alphabetic letters (such as in Rome). Although today, we take our decimal system for granted, not all ancient civilizations based their numbers on a ten-base system. In ancient Babylon, a hexagesimal (base 60) system was in use. Though the Babylonians used a special symbol for ‘zero’ as early as the 3rd century B.C., they used it only as a place holder and did not have the concept of ‘zero’ as an actual value.1,5
Compared to the Indian system of mathematical calculations, the Babylonian numeration had only three figures, one for 1, one for 10, and one for 100, so that a number, say, 999, would require 27 symbols, namely, nine of each of the symbols. But it is not certain when exactly the invention of this most modest of all numerals took place. The first time it reached Europe was during the Moorish invasion of Spain around 700 A.D. Later, when massive Latin translations of books from Baghdad took place around the close of the first millennium A.D., the concept was found in an arithmetic book dated 820 A.D., by Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khouarizmi , who explained the whole Decimal System in great detail. It was actually the Indian system that explained as the Arabs themselves had no number system of their own.1,5
The Maya civilization of South America also had a ‘zero’ in the first century A.D., but they did not use it in a fixed base system. The Greeks were hampered by their use of letters for the numbers. Before ‘zero’ was invented, the art of reckoning remained an exclusive and highly skilled profession. It was difficult to distinguish, say, 27, 207, 270, 2007, because the latter three were all written 2 7, with a ‘space’ in between. The positional system is not possible in the Roman numeral system which had no expression or symbol for ‘zero’. A number, say, 101,000, would have to be written only by 101 consecutive M’s. The Egyptians had no ‘zero’ and never reached the idea of expressing all numbers with ten digits.1,5
The Evolution of Indian Numeral System
Although the Chinese were also using a decimal based counting system in ancient times, they lacked a formal notational system that had the abstraction and elegance of the Indian notational system. It was the Indian notational system that reached the Western world through the Arabs and has now been accepted as universal. Several factors contributed to this development whose significance is perhaps best stated by French mathematician, Laplace: "The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions." 1,4,6
(a) The Decimal System in Harappa
The mathematical environment among the Indians was congenial for the invention of ‘zero’ and for its use as the null-value in all facets of calculation. In India a decimal system was already in place during the Harappan period, as indicated by an analysis of Harappan weights and measures. Weights corresponding to ratios of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 have been identified, as have scales with decimal divisions. A particularly notable characteristic of Harappan weights and measures is their remarkable accuracy. A bronze rod marked in units of 0.367 inches points to the degree of precision demanded in those times. Such scales were particularly important in ensuring proper implementation of town planning rules that required roads of fixed widths to run at right angles to each other, for drains to be constructed of precise measurements, and for homes to be constructed according to specified guidelines. The existence of a gradated system of accurately marked weights points to the development of trade and commerce in Harappan society.4,6,9
(b) Mathematical Activity in the Vedic Period
In the Vedic period, records of mathematical activity are mostly to be found in Vedic texts associated with ritual activities. However, as in many other early agricultural civilizations, the study of arithmetic and geometry was also impelled by secular considerations. Thus, to some extent early mathematical developments in India mirrored the developments in Egypt, Babylon and China. The system of land grants and agricultural tax assessments required accurate measurement of cultivated areas. As land was redistributed or consolidated, problems of mensuration came up that required solutions. This meant that an understanding of geometry and arithmetic was virtually essential for revenue administrators. Mathematics was thus brought into the service of both the secular and the ritual domains.4,6,9
Arithmetic operations (Ganit) such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, fractions, squares, cubes and roots are enumerated in the Narad Vishnu Purana attributed to Ved Vyas (pre-1000 BC). Examples of geometric knowledge (rekha-ganit) are to be found in the Sulva-Sutras of Baudhayana (800 BC) and Apasthmaba (600 BC) which describe techniques for the construction of ritual altars in use during the Vedic era. It is likely that these texts tapped geometric knowledge that may have been acquired much earlier, possibly in the Harappan period. Baudhayana's Sutra displays an understanding of basic geometric shapes and techniques of converting one geometric shape (such as a rectangle) to another of equivalent (or multiple, or fractional) area (such as a square). While some of the formulations are approximations, others are accurate and reveal a certain degree of practical ingenuity as well as some theoretical understanding of basic geometric principles. Modern methods of multiplication and addition probably emerged from the techniques described in the Sulva-Sutras.4,6,9,10
A notation for powers of 10 up to the power 17 was already in use even from Vedic times. Single words had been used to denote the powers of the number 10. The numbers one, ten, hundred, thousand, ten thousand, … were given by the sequence of words in the list: eka, dasa, śata, sahasra, ayuta, laksha, prayuta, koţi, arbuda, abja, kharva, nikharva, mahā-padma, śankha, jaladhi, antya, mahāśankha, parārdha. Thus, the Decimal System was in Indian culture even in the early part of the first millennium B.C. The Yajurveda, in its description of rituals and the mantras employed therein, the Mahabharata and the Ramayanā in their descriptions of statistics and measurements used all these words with total abandon. However, distinct symbols for the numbers 1 to 9 already existed in the Indian system of calculations and the counting system used the base 10 in all its secular, religious and ritual activities. These two factors were unique to Indian culture and contributed most to the thought process that led to the decimal place value notation as well as ’zero’ having a value.1,4,6,9
(c) Brahminical Philosophy and Mathematics
Indian philosophical doctrines also had a profound influence on the development of mathematical concepts and formulations. In the Upanishadic world view of Brahmanism, space and time were considered limitless. This led to a deep interest in developing very large numbers and evolution of the definitions of infinite numbers. Infinite numbers were created through recursive formulae, as in the Anuyoga Dwara Sutra.4,6,10
(d) Philosophy of Jainism and Mathematics
Like the Upanishadic world view, the Jain cosmology also regarded space and time as limitless. Jain mathematicians recognized five different types of infinities that included, infinite in one direction, in two directions, in area, infinite everywhere and perpetually infinite. Since Jain epistemology allowed for a degree of indeterminacy in describing reality, it probably helped in grappling with indeterminate equations and finding numerical approximations to irrational numbers. Permutations and combinations are listed in the Bhagvati Sutras (3rd C BC) and Sathananga Sutra (2nd C BC). In Satkhandagama, various sets are operated upon by logarithmic functions to base two, by squaring and extracting square roots, and by rising to finite or infinite powers. The operations are repeated to produce new sets. In other works the relation of the number of combinations to the coefficients occurring in the binomial expansion is noted.4,6,9,10
(d) Buddhist Philosophy and Mathematics
Buddhist literature also demonstrates an awareness of indeterminate and infinite numbers. Buddhist mathematics was classified either as Garna (Simple Mathematics) or Sankhyan (Higher Mathematics). Numbers were deemed to be of three types: Sankheya (countable), Asankheya (uncountable) and Anant (infinite). Nāgārjuna’s Doctrine of Emptiness or Śūnyatā had paved the way for the development of the concept of ‘nullity’ and ‘infinity’ in modern mathematics.4,6,10
(e) Contribution of Brahmagupta to Modern Mathematics 1,4,5,6,9,10
Philosophical formulations concerning Shunya - i.e. emptiness or the void may have facilitated in the introduction of the concept of ‘zero’. While the ‘zero’ (bindu) as an empty place holder in the place-value numeral system appears much earlier, algebraic definitions of the ‘zero’ and its relationship to mathematical functions appear in the mathematical treatises of Brahmagupta in the 7th C AD. Although scholars are divided about how early the symbol for ‘zero’ came to be used in numeric notation in India, (Ifrah arguing that the use of ‘zero’ is already implied in Aryabhatta) tangible evidence for the use of the ‘zero’ begins to proliferate towards the end of the Gupta period. Between the 7th C and the 11th C, Indian numerals developed into their modern form, and along with the symbols denoting various mathematical functions (such as plus, minus, square root etc) eventually became the foundation stones of modern mathematical notation.
Counting boards with columns representing units and tens were in use from very ancient times in India. The numberless content of an empty column in course of time was symbolized to be ‘nothing’. The thriving activity in astrology, astronomy, navigation and business during the first few centuries A.D. in India also looked forward for a superior numerical system that lent itself to complicated calculations.
The ancient India astronomer Brahmagupta is credited with having put forth the concept of ‘zero’ for the first time. Brahmagupta is said to have been born the year 598 A.D. at Bhillamala (today's Bhinmal ) in Gujarat, Western India. His name as a mathematician was well established when King Vyaghramukha of the Chapa dynasty made him the court astronomer. Among his two treatises, Brahma-sputa siddhanta and Karanakhandakhadyaka, first one is more famous. It was a corrected version of the old Astronomical text, Brahma siddhanta. It was in his Brahma-sphu siddhanta, for the first time ever that he had formulated the rules of the operation ‘zero’, foreshadowing the Decimal System numeration. With the integration of ‘zero’ into the numerals, it became possible to note higher numerals with limited characters. Since, Nāgārjuna’s Doctrine of Emptiness or Śūnyatā was quite popular in Indian society during the time of Brahmagupta, there is a high probability that Brahmagupta was inspired by this Doctrine of Emptiness. Thus, the philosophical concept of ‘emptiness’ or ‘śūnyatā ’ or ‘void’ gave rise to the concept of ‘zero’ in Indian mathematics. Subsequently, this became the foundation for modern mathematics.
Brilliant as it was, this invention was no accident. In the Western world, the cumbersome Roman numeral system posed as a major obstacle, and in China the pictorial script posed as a hindrance. But in India, almost everything was in place to favor such a development. There was already a long and established history in the use of decimal numbers, and philosophical and cosmological constructs encouraged a creative and expansive approach to number theory. Panini's studies in linguistic theory and formal language and the powerful role of symbolism and representational abstraction in art and architecture may have also provided an impetus, as might have the rationalist doctrines and the exacting epistemology of the Nyaya Sutras, and the innovative abstractions of the Syadavada and Buddhist schools of learning.
In the earlier Roman and Babylonian systems of numeration, a large number of characters were required to denote higher numerals. Thus, enumeration and computation was a cumbersome process. According to the Roman system of numeration, the number thirty would have to be written as XXX. But as per the Decimal System it would 30. Similarly, as per the Roman system, the number thirty three would be written as XXXIII. But as per the Decimal System, it would be 33. Thus, it is clear how the introduction of the Decimal System made possible the writing of numerals having a high value with limited characters. This also made computation easier.
Apart from developing the Decimal System based on the incorporation of ‘zero’ in enumeration, Brahmagupta also arrived at solutions for indeterminate equations of 1 type ax2+1=y2 and thus can be called the founder of higher branch of mathematics called numerical analysis. Brahmagupta's treatise Brahma-sputa-siddhanta was translated into Arabic under the title Sind Hind. For several centuries this translation remained a standard text of reference in the Arab world. It was from this translation of an Indian text on Mathematics that the Arab mathematicians perfected the Decimal System and gave the world its current system of enumeration which we call the Arab numerals, which are originally Indian numerals.
‘Zero’ and the Place-Value Notation
The number ‘zero’ is the subtle gift of the Indians of antiquity to mankind. The concept itself was one of the most significant inventions in the ascent of Man for the growth of culture and civilization. It must be credited with the enormous usefulness of its counterpart, the place value system of expressing all numbers with just ten symbols. The concept of ‘zero’ had revolutionarized our way of thinking and helped the mankind to simplify all computations during the last two millennia. The binary system also evolved from this ‘zero’ concept and it became the foundation for communicating with computers.1,5,8
In spite of the ‘zero’ being so crucial to our day to day calculations and living, it took centuries for the western world to appreciate and incorporate this most valuable numeral, ‘zero’, in their recording of accounts or in scholarly writings. By the time ‘zero’ reached the West, the Dark Ages of the western world had begun. However, there are traces of its knowledge in Spain in the tenth century A.D. But the final breakthrough of the introduction to the West was by Leonardo of Pisa, through his popular text Liber Abaci, 1202 A.D., the first European book (in French) that used the ‘zero’ appeared in 1275.1,5,8
Application of the Concept of Emptiness in Modern Mathematics
In ancient India the numeral of ‘void’ or ‘sunyam’ was used in computation. It was indicated by a dot and was termed ‘Pujyam’. Even today we use this term for ‘zero’ along with the more current term ‘Sunyam’ meaning a blank. But the term ‘Pujyam’ also means holy. ‘Param-Pujya’ is a prefix used in written communication with elders where it means respected or esteemed. The reason why the term ‘Pujya’, meaning blank, came to be sanctified is still unknown.1,4,6,9
Indian philosophy has glorified concepts like the material world being an illusion or ‘Maya’. The act of renouncing the material world is ‘Tyaga’ and the goal of merging into the void of eternity is ‘Nibbana’. The mathematical concept of ‘zero’ might have got a philosophical connotation of reverence from these.1,4,6,10
It is possible that like the technique of algebra, the concept of ‘zero’ also reached the west through the Arabs. In ancient India the terms used to describe ‘zero’ included ‘Pujyam’, ‘Sunyam’, ‘Bindu’. The concept of a void or blank was termed as ‘Shukla’ and ‘Shubra’ which also means white or purity. The Arabs referred to the ‘zero’ as ‘Siphra’ or ‘Sifr’ from which we have the English terms Cipher or Cypher. In English the term Cipher connotes ‘zero’ or any Arabic numeral. Thus, it is evident that the term Cipher is derived from the Arabic ‘Sifr’ which in turn is quite close to the Sanskrit term ‘Shubra’.1,4,6,9
In the ancient Indian context, the number ‘zero’ did not originally refer to nothingness or nullity. The Sanskrit word for ‘zero’ is ‘sunyam’, which means "puffed up, hollow, empty." The ‘zero’ stands for emptiness suggestive of potentiality. The discovery of the mathematical ‘zero’ concurred with the emptiness of prajna-intuition in India around 200 BC. The concept of ‘zero’ evolved to signify polar opposition between being and nonbeing. ‘zero’ is that which contains all possible polarized pairs such as (+1, -1), (+2, -2), etc. It is the collection of all mutually cancelling pairs of forward and backward movements. Put it another way, ‘zero’ is fundamental to all existence. Because of it, everything is possible. ‘zero’ is the additive identity, the focal point of all numbers. The numbers cannot be created without the ‘zero’. Among the great civilizations of antiquity, India alone was able to fathom the depth of emptiness and willing to accept its importance in mathematics. Following the introduction of the Indian-Arabic numerals into Western culture, ‘zero’ became a number that was used in calculations like any other number. Consequently, it lost some part of its original meaning, namely the part that suggests potentiality. Today, most mathematicians do not associate the notion of emptiness with ‘zero’, but with the ‘Empty Set’ which is a construct of set theory. This notion of emptiness is also now associated with the ‘Null Hypothesis Testing’ in statistical methods which is the backbone of modern research. Thus, it is evident that Nāgārjuna’s doctrine of ‘śūnyatā’ provided the foundation for modern epidemiology and biostatistics.1,4,6,8,10
Emptiness and Null Set: The Evolution of Natural Numbers 1,4,6,9
A set is a collection of objects or numbers. For example, the set { 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 } is a set of numbers containing five elements; it is therefore said to have the "cardinality" of 5. The Null Set or Empty Set { } is a collection that contains nothing and has the cardinality 0. The mathematician John von Neumann (1923) invented a method, known as von Neumann hierarchy, which can be employed to generate the natural numbers from the empty set as follows:
Step 0: { } (empty set)
Step 1: { { } } (set containing the empty set)
Step 2: { { }, { { } } } (set containing previous two sets)
Step 3: { { }, { { } } , { { }, { { } } } } (set containing previous three sets)
Step 4: { { }, { { } } , { { }, { { } } }, { { }, { { } } , { { }, { { } } } } } (set containing previous four sets etc.)
This sequence is obtained by iterating a function that creates a new set from the union of the preceding two sets, thus generating sets with the cardinalities 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ad infinitum. In less mathematical terms, the principle can be described as follows: Beginning with emptiness (step 0), we observe emptiness. Through the act of observing we create an entity containing emptiness (step 1). Now we perceive emptiness, as well as an entity. From the combination of the former two we create another entity by observation, which is different from the first entity (step 2). This process is repeated again and again. Interestingly, if we define suitable operations on the obtained sets based on union and intersection, the cardinalities of the resulting sets behave just like natural numbers being added and subtracted. The sequence is therefore isomorphic to the natural numbers - a stunningly beautiful example of something from nothing.
Emptiness and Null Hypothesis 1,4,6,8,10
The concept of ‘nullity’ in the ‘Null Hypothesis’ is the backbone of modern scientific research and statistical methods. The acceptance or rejection of Null Hypothesis is the fundamental basis of our scientific understandings. At the Beginning of any research, the researchers need to take a neutral stand by assuming that a set of suspected correlates or determinants are neither related not non-related to the outcome variable that is examined in the study. This neutral position by the researchers is actually the application of emptiness in order to remain unbiased throughout the study. However, the Null Hypothesis states that there is no relationship between a correlate or determinant and an outcome. In case any relationship is observed, it is merely due to chance. So, the researchers need to analytically judge from the results of their research findings on whether to accept or reject the Null Hypothesis. Various probability oriented statistical models are applied to test this Null Hypothesis in every research in order to establish the actual truth by attaching logical and analytical judgment to the findings. All these efforts are directed towards minimizing the chance factor to establish the truth with accuracy in the light of our fundamental understandings and logical reasoning. Nāgārjuna’s doctrine of ‘śūnyatā’ provided the foundation for this insight in modern epidemiology and biostatistics.
Conclusion
It is interesting to know how the ‘Sunyam’ of the Indians became the ‘zero’ of the modern world. The 'Sunya' of Sanskrit became the Arabic ‘sifr’ which means empty space. In Medieval Latin it manifested as ‘ciphra’, then in Middle English as ‘siphre’, in English as ‘cypher’ and in American as ‘cipher’. In the middle ages, the word ‘ciphra’ evolved to stand for the whole system. In the wake of this general meaning, the Latin ‘zephirum’ came to be used to denote the ‘Sunyam’. And that entered English finally as ‘zero’. In medieval Europe, some countries banned the positional number system, along with ‘zero’, brought by the Arabs whom they considered as heathens. So, they considered the ‘Sunyam’ to be a creation of the devil. As a result ‘ciphra’ came to mean a secret code. The term ‘deciphering’ later evolved from this which meant ‘resolution of a code’.1,4,5,6
The Decimal System of numerals is known as Indo-Arabic numerals even today. But it is actually a misnomer. The concept of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ first evolved in India and was later adopted by the Arabs. The archeological evidence of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ were already found on the Rock Edits of Ashoka (256 B.C.) which was curved several centuries earlier than Arab invasion.1,4,5,6
Though the concept of ‘zero’ appeared in the Indian history much earlier, but Nāgārjuna gave a new dimension of ‘nullity’ or ‘emptiness’ to the notion of ‘zero’ and made it more meaningful with regard to our philosophical understandings. The historical evidences imply that the Indian contribution of ‘zero’, which had eventually led to the evolution of the Decimal System of numbers, was a significant milestone in modern mathematics and had changed our way of thinking and understanding forever.
References
1. Knierim, T. 2009. Emptiness is Form [serial online]. [Cited 2009 October 20]; [4 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/emptiness.html
2. Bowker, J. 1997. Śūnyatā. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. UK: Encyclopedia.com. [Serial online]. [Cited 2009 April 28]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.encyclopedia.com
3. Garfield, J.L. 1995. The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way: Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika, translation (from Tibetan) and commentary. New York: Oxford University Press.
4. Srinivasiengar, C.N. 1967. The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics. Calcutta, India: World Press Private Ltd.
5. Juskevic, A.P., Demidov, S.S., Medvedev, F.A., Slavutin, E.I. 1974. Studies in the History of Mathematics. Moscow: Nauka: 220-222; 302.
6. Murthy, T.S.B. 1992. A Modern Introduction to Ancient Indian Mathematics. New Delhi, India: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
7. Williams, P. 2009. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2nd edition. UK: Routledge: 69-82.
8. Finkelstein, D.R., Wallace, B.A. ed. 2001. Emptiness and Relativity. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
9. Datta, B., Singh, A.N. 1962. History of Hindu mathematics. India: Asia Publishing House.
10. Rao, S.B. 1994. Indian Mathematics and Astronomy. Bangalore, India: Jnana Deep Publications.
IN MODERN MATHEMATICS
ANKUR BARUA, N. TESTERMAN, M.A. BASILIO
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen
Hong Kong, 2009
Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,
SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,
KOLKATA – 700 091
WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Tel: +91-33-23215586
Mobile: +919434485543
Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com
THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ )
IN MODERN MATHEMATICS
Abstract
The concept of ‘zero’ or ‘sunyam’ originated in ancient India. It was derived from the concept of ‘void’ or ‘śūnyatā ’ propagated by Nāgārjuna through his Doctrine of Emptiness or ‘śūnyatā ’. The inclusion of ‘zero’ in mathematics paved way for development of the decimal system for financial transactions.
The Decimal System of numerals is known as Indo-Arabic numerals even today. But it is actually a misnomer. The concept of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ first evolved in India and was later adopted by the Arabs. The archeological evidence of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ were already found on the Rock Edits of Ashoka (256 B.C.) which was curved several centuries earlier than Arab invasion.
Though the concept of ‘zero’ appeared in the Indian history much earlier, but Nāgārjuna gave a new dimension of ‘nullity’ or ‘emptiness’ to the notion of ‘zero’ and made it more meaningful with regard to our philosophical understandings.
Key words: Emptiness, Mathematics, Zero, Nullity, Void, Nāgārjuna, Śūnyatā.
THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ )
IN MODERN MATHEMATICS
Introduction
The concept of ‘zero’ or ‘sunyam’ originated in ancient India. It was derived from the concept of ‘void’ or ‘śūnyatā ’ propagated by Nāgārjuna through his Doctrine of Emptiness or ‘śūnyatā ’.1 However, the concept of ‘void’ existed in Hindu Philosophy before Nāgārjuna. There also existed the derivation of a symbol for it. The early Vedic concept of ‘śūnyatā ’or ‘void’ was later refined by Nāgārjuna who had imparted an intensive philosophical meaning to it.1 Nāgārjuna’s doctrine of ‘śūnyatā’ provided the foundation for Mahāyāna and Vajrāyāna (Tantrāyāna) forms of Buddhism. This Doctrine of Emptiness had deep rooted origin in the Buddha’s Doctrine of Dependent Origination or Impermanence. The concept of ‘śūnyatā’ was influenced by South-east Asian culture through the Buddhist concept of ‘Nibbana’ which means 'attaining salvation by merging into the void of eternity'.2,3
A concept and symbol that connotes nullity represents a qualitative advancement of the human capacity of abstraction. In absence of a concept of ‘zero’ there could have been only positive numerals in computation, the inclusion of ‘zero’ in mathematics opened up a new dimension of negative numerals and gave a cut-off point and a standard in the measurability of qualities whose extremes are still unknown to human beings, such as temperature. Though the exact age of origin of ‘zero’ in Indian mathematics is still unknown, but the archeological evidence of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ during the Buddhist period were found on the Rock Edits of Ashoka (256 B.C.).4,5,6
The Buddhist Concept of ‘Śūnyatā’ or ‘Emptiness’
In early Buddhism, the term ‘suññatā’ or ‘śūnyatā’ is used primarily in connection with the ‘no-self’ (anatman) doctrine to denote that the Five Aggregates (skandhas) are ‘empty’ of the permanent self or soul which is erroneously imputed to them.1 The doctrine of emptiness, however, received its fullest elaboration by Nāgārjuna, who wielded it skillfully to destroy the substantiality conceptions of the Abhidharma schools of the Theravāda. Since there cannot be anything that is not the Buddha-nature (buddhatā), all that appears is in truth devoid of characteristics. The doctrine of emptiness is the central tenet of the Mādhyamaka School. A statement of Nāgārjuna's views in support of it may be found in his Mūla-Mādhyamaka-Nārikā.2,3,7
Nāgārjuna is regarded as the founder of the Mādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy which he had established during the 2nd-3rd Century A.D. The ‘Mulamadhyamaka-Karika’ ("Fundamentals of the Middle Way") is his major work. It was originally composed in Sanskrit. The Sanskrit as well as early Tibetan versions of the work had survived without significant damage over the ages along with the later Chinese translations. Several complete English translations of the ‘Karika’ are available in recent times.2,3,7,8
Evolution of the Concept of ‘Zero’ in Modern Mathematics
In mathematics the notion of emptiness finds expression in the number ‘zero’, as well as in contemporary set theory. The concept of ‘zero’ was discovered in India prior to the third century A.D. The "Arabic" number system we use today is neither Arabic nor Greek in origin. In fact, the digits 0123456789 go back to India where they were first created. The ancient Indian number system distinguished itself from other positional systems by virtue of allowing the use of ‘zero’ as a legitimate number. The number ‘zero’ did not exist in Greek mathematics, because the Greeks were essentially geometricians and had no use for the mathematical concept of a non-entity. The concept of ‘zero’ also did not exist in Egyptian mathematics. The Arabs, who encountered the Indian number system during their early conquests in India, found it superior to their own traditional system which used alphabets, and had adapted it to develop Islamic mathematics. The Arabic word for ‘zero’ is "sifr", meaning "empty." In the 12th century, the Italian mathematician Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci studied Arabian algebra and introduced the Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europe. The word "sifr" got transformed into "zephirum" in Latin and subsequently, ‘zero’ in English.1,5
During the first three centuries A.D., the ancient Indians were already using a decimal positional system on a wide scale. In this system, the numerals in different positions represent different numbers and here, one of the ten symbols used was a fully functional ‘zero’. They called it 'Sunyam'. The word and its meaning ‘void’ were obviously borrowed from its use in philosophical literature. Eventually, the Decimal System of calculation evolved from this, which laid the foundation for all the modern arithmetic, mathematics and statistics. 1,4,5,6
The Babylonian System of Numerals
In all early civilizations, the first expression of mathematical understanding appears in the form of counting systems. Numbers in very early societies were typically represented by groups of lines, though later different numbers came to be assigned specific numeral names and symbols (as in India) or were designated by alphabetic letters (such as in Rome). Although today, we take our decimal system for granted, not all ancient civilizations based their numbers on a ten-base system. In ancient Babylon, a hexagesimal (base 60) system was in use. Though the Babylonians used a special symbol for ‘zero’ as early as the 3rd century B.C., they used it only as a place holder and did not have the concept of ‘zero’ as an actual value.1,5
Compared to the Indian system of mathematical calculations, the Babylonian numeration had only three figures, one for 1, one for 10, and one for 100, so that a number, say, 999, would require 27 symbols, namely, nine of each of the symbols. But it is not certain when exactly the invention of this most modest of all numerals took place. The first time it reached Europe was during the Moorish invasion of Spain around 700 A.D. Later, when massive Latin translations of books from Baghdad took place around the close of the first millennium A.D., the concept was found in an arithmetic book dated 820 A.D., by Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khouarizmi , who explained the whole Decimal System in great detail. It was actually the Indian system that explained as the Arabs themselves had no number system of their own.1,5
The Maya civilization of South America also had a ‘zero’ in the first century A.D., but they did not use it in a fixed base system. The Greeks were hampered by their use of letters for the numbers. Before ‘zero’ was invented, the art of reckoning remained an exclusive and highly skilled profession. It was difficult to distinguish, say, 27, 207, 270, 2007, because the latter three were all written 2 7, with a ‘space’ in between. The positional system is not possible in the Roman numeral system which had no expression or symbol for ‘zero’. A number, say, 101,000, would have to be written only by 101 consecutive M’s. The Egyptians had no ‘zero’ and never reached the idea of expressing all numbers with ten digits.1,5
The Evolution of Indian Numeral System
Although the Chinese were also using a decimal based counting system in ancient times, they lacked a formal notational system that had the abstraction and elegance of the Indian notational system. It was the Indian notational system that reached the Western world through the Arabs and has now been accepted as universal. Several factors contributed to this development whose significance is perhaps best stated by French mathematician, Laplace: "The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions." 1,4,6
(a) The Decimal System in Harappa
The mathematical environment among the Indians was congenial for the invention of ‘zero’ and for its use as the null-value in all facets of calculation. In India a decimal system was already in place during the Harappan period, as indicated by an analysis of Harappan weights and measures. Weights corresponding to ratios of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 have been identified, as have scales with decimal divisions. A particularly notable characteristic of Harappan weights and measures is their remarkable accuracy. A bronze rod marked in units of 0.367 inches points to the degree of precision demanded in those times. Such scales were particularly important in ensuring proper implementation of town planning rules that required roads of fixed widths to run at right angles to each other, for drains to be constructed of precise measurements, and for homes to be constructed according to specified guidelines. The existence of a gradated system of accurately marked weights points to the development of trade and commerce in Harappan society.4,6,9
(b) Mathematical Activity in the Vedic Period
In the Vedic period, records of mathematical activity are mostly to be found in Vedic texts associated with ritual activities. However, as in many other early agricultural civilizations, the study of arithmetic and geometry was also impelled by secular considerations. Thus, to some extent early mathematical developments in India mirrored the developments in Egypt, Babylon and China. The system of land grants and agricultural tax assessments required accurate measurement of cultivated areas. As land was redistributed or consolidated, problems of mensuration came up that required solutions. This meant that an understanding of geometry and arithmetic was virtually essential for revenue administrators. Mathematics was thus brought into the service of both the secular and the ritual domains.4,6,9
Arithmetic operations (Ganit) such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, fractions, squares, cubes and roots are enumerated in the Narad Vishnu Purana attributed to Ved Vyas (pre-1000 BC). Examples of geometric knowledge (rekha-ganit) are to be found in the Sulva-Sutras of Baudhayana (800 BC) and Apasthmaba (600 BC) which describe techniques for the construction of ritual altars in use during the Vedic era. It is likely that these texts tapped geometric knowledge that may have been acquired much earlier, possibly in the Harappan period. Baudhayana's Sutra displays an understanding of basic geometric shapes and techniques of converting one geometric shape (such as a rectangle) to another of equivalent (or multiple, or fractional) area (such as a square). While some of the formulations are approximations, others are accurate and reveal a certain degree of practical ingenuity as well as some theoretical understanding of basic geometric principles. Modern methods of multiplication and addition probably emerged from the techniques described in the Sulva-Sutras.4,6,9,10
A notation for powers of 10 up to the power 17 was already in use even from Vedic times. Single words had been used to denote the powers of the number 10. The numbers one, ten, hundred, thousand, ten thousand, … were given by the sequence of words in the list: eka, dasa, śata, sahasra, ayuta, laksha, prayuta, koţi, arbuda, abja, kharva, nikharva, mahā-padma, śankha, jaladhi, antya, mahāśankha, parārdha. Thus, the Decimal System was in Indian culture even in the early part of the first millennium B.C. The Yajurveda, in its description of rituals and the mantras employed therein, the Mahabharata and the Ramayanā in their descriptions of statistics and measurements used all these words with total abandon. However, distinct symbols for the numbers 1 to 9 already existed in the Indian system of calculations and the counting system used the base 10 in all its secular, religious and ritual activities. These two factors were unique to Indian culture and contributed most to the thought process that led to the decimal place value notation as well as ’zero’ having a value.1,4,6,9
(c) Brahminical Philosophy and Mathematics
Indian philosophical doctrines also had a profound influence on the development of mathematical concepts and formulations. In the Upanishadic world view of Brahmanism, space and time were considered limitless. This led to a deep interest in developing very large numbers and evolution of the definitions of infinite numbers. Infinite numbers were created through recursive formulae, as in the Anuyoga Dwara Sutra.4,6,10
(d) Philosophy of Jainism and Mathematics
Like the Upanishadic world view, the Jain cosmology also regarded space and time as limitless. Jain mathematicians recognized five different types of infinities that included, infinite in one direction, in two directions, in area, infinite everywhere and perpetually infinite. Since Jain epistemology allowed for a degree of indeterminacy in describing reality, it probably helped in grappling with indeterminate equations and finding numerical approximations to irrational numbers. Permutations and combinations are listed in the Bhagvati Sutras (3rd C BC) and Sathananga Sutra (2nd C BC). In Satkhandagama, various sets are operated upon by logarithmic functions to base two, by squaring and extracting square roots, and by rising to finite or infinite powers. The operations are repeated to produce new sets. In other works the relation of the number of combinations to the coefficients occurring in the binomial expansion is noted.4,6,9,10
(d) Buddhist Philosophy and Mathematics
Buddhist literature also demonstrates an awareness of indeterminate and infinite numbers. Buddhist mathematics was classified either as Garna (Simple Mathematics) or Sankhyan (Higher Mathematics). Numbers were deemed to be of three types: Sankheya (countable), Asankheya (uncountable) and Anant (infinite). Nāgārjuna’s Doctrine of Emptiness or Śūnyatā had paved the way for the development of the concept of ‘nullity’ and ‘infinity’ in modern mathematics.4,6,10
(e) Contribution of Brahmagupta to Modern Mathematics 1,4,5,6,9,10
Philosophical formulations concerning Shunya - i.e. emptiness or the void may have facilitated in the introduction of the concept of ‘zero’. While the ‘zero’ (bindu) as an empty place holder in the place-value numeral system appears much earlier, algebraic definitions of the ‘zero’ and its relationship to mathematical functions appear in the mathematical treatises of Brahmagupta in the 7th C AD. Although scholars are divided about how early the symbol for ‘zero’ came to be used in numeric notation in India, (Ifrah arguing that the use of ‘zero’ is already implied in Aryabhatta) tangible evidence for the use of the ‘zero’ begins to proliferate towards the end of the Gupta period. Between the 7th C and the 11th C, Indian numerals developed into their modern form, and along with the symbols denoting various mathematical functions (such as plus, minus, square root etc) eventually became the foundation stones of modern mathematical notation.
Counting boards with columns representing units and tens were in use from very ancient times in India. The numberless content of an empty column in course of time was symbolized to be ‘nothing’. The thriving activity in astrology, astronomy, navigation and business during the first few centuries A.D. in India also looked forward for a superior numerical system that lent itself to complicated calculations.
The ancient India astronomer Brahmagupta is credited with having put forth the concept of ‘zero’ for the first time. Brahmagupta is said to have been born the year 598 A.D. at Bhillamala (today's Bhinmal ) in Gujarat, Western India. His name as a mathematician was well established when King Vyaghramukha of the Chapa dynasty made him the court astronomer. Among his two treatises, Brahma-sputa siddhanta and Karanakhandakhadyaka, first one is more famous. It was a corrected version of the old Astronomical text, Brahma siddhanta. It was in his Brahma-sphu siddhanta, for the first time ever that he had formulated the rules of the operation ‘zero’, foreshadowing the Decimal System numeration. With the integration of ‘zero’ into the numerals, it became possible to note higher numerals with limited characters. Since, Nāgārjuna’s Doctrine of Emptiness or Śūnyatā was quite popular in Indian society during the time of Brahmagupta, there is a high probability that Brahmagupta was inspired by this Doctrine of Emptiness. Thus, the philosophical concept of ‘emptiness’ or ‘śūnyatā ’ or ‘void’ gave rise to the concept of ‘zero’ in Indian mathematics. Subsequently, this became the foundation for modern mathematics.
Brilliant as it was, this invention was no accident. In the Western world, the cumbersome Roman numeral system posed as a major obstacle, and in China the pictorial script posed as a hindrance. But in India, almost everything was in place to favor such a development. There was already a long and established history in the use of decimal numbers, and philosophical and cosmological constructs encouraged a creative and expansive approach to number theory. Panini's studies in linguistic theory and formal language and the powerful role of symbolism and representational abstraction in art and architecture may have also provided an impetus, as might have the rationalist doctrines and the exacting epistemology of the Nyaya Sutras, and the innovative abstractions of the Syadavada and Buddhist schools of learning.
In the earlier Roman and Babylonian systems of numeration, a large number of characters were required to denote higher numerals. Thus, enumeration and computation was a cumbersome process. According to the Roman system of numeration, the number thirty would have to be written as XXX. But as per the Decimal System it would 30. Similarly, as per the Roman system, the number thirty three would be written as XXXIII. But as per the Decimal System, it would be 33. Thus, it is clear how the introduction of the Decimal System made possible the writing of numerals having a high value with limited characters. This also made computation easier.
Apart from developing the Decimal System based on the incorporation of ‘zero’ in enumeration, Brahmagupta also arrived at solutions for indeterminate equations of 1 type ax2+1=y2 and thus can be called the founder of higher branch of mathematics called numerical analysis. Brahmagupta's treatise Brahma-sputa-siddhanta was translated into Arabic under the title Sind Hind. For several centuries this translation remained a standard text of reference in the Arab world. It was from this translation of an Indian text on Mathematics that the Arab mathematicians perfected the Decimal System and gave the world its current system of enumeration which we call the Arab numerals, which are originally Indian numerals.
‘Zero’ and the Place-Value Notation
The number ‘zero’ is the subtle gift of the Indians of antiquity to mankind. The concept itself was one of the most significant inventions in the ascent of Man for the growth of culture and civilization. It must be credited with the enormous usefulness of its counterpart, the place value system of expressing all numbers with just ten symbols. The concept of ‘zero’ had revolutionarized our way of thinking and helped the mankind to simplify all computations during the last two millennia. The binary system also evolved from this ‘zero’ concept and it became the foundation for communicating with computers.1,5,8
In spite of the ‘zero’ being so crucial to our day to day calculations and living, it took centuries for the western world to appreciate and incorporate this most valuable numeral, ‘zero’, in their recording of accounts or in scholarly writings. By the time ‘zero’ reached the West, the Dark Ages of the western world had begun. However, there are traces of its knowledge in Spain in the tenth century A.D. But the final breakthrough of the introduction to the West was by Leonardo of Pisa, through his popular text Liber Abaci, 1202 A.D., the first European book (in French) that used the ‘zero’ appeared in 1275.1,5,8
Application of the Concept of Emptiness in Modern Mathematics
In ancient India the numeral of ‘void’ or ‘sunyam’ was used in computation. It was indicated by a dot and was termed ‘Pujyam’. Even today we use this term for ‘zero’ along with the more current term ‘Sunyam’ meaning a blank. But the term ‘Pujyam’ also means holy. ‘Param-Pujya’ is a prefix used in written communication with elders where it means respected or esteemed. The reason why the term ‘Pujya’, meaning blank, came to be sanctified is still unknown.1,4,6,9
Indian philosophy has glorified concepts like the material world being an illusion or ‘Maya’. The act of renouncing the material world is ‘Tyaga’ and the goal of merging into the void of eternity is ‘Nibbana’. The mathematical concept of ‘zero’ might have got a philosophical connotation of reverence from these.1,4,6,10
It is possible that like the technique of algebra, the concept of ‘zero’ also reached the west through the Arabs. In ancient India the terms used to describe ‘zero’ included ‘Pujyam’, ‘Sunyam’, ‘Bindu’. The concept of a void or blank was termed as ‘Shukla’ and ‘Shubra’ which also means white or purity. The Arabs referred to the ‘zero’ as ‘Siphra’ or ‘Sifr’ from which we have the English terms Cipher or Cypher. In English the term Cipher connotes ‘zero’ or any Arabic numeral. Thus, it is evident that the term Cipher is derived from the Arabic ‘Sifr’ which in turn is quite close to the Sanskrit term ‘Shubra’.1,4,6,9
In the ancient Indian context, the number ‘zero’ did not originally refer to nothingness or nullity. The Sanskrit word for ‘zero’ is ‘sunyam’, which means "puffed up, hollow, empty." The ‘zero’ stands for emptiness suggestive of potentiality. The discovery of the mathematical ‘zero’ concurred with the emptiness of prajna-intuition in India around 200 BC. The concept of ‘zero’ evolved to signify polar opposition between being and nonbeing. ‘zero’ is that which contains all possible polarized pairs such as (+1, -1), (+2, -2), etc. It is the collection of all mutually cancelling pairs of forward and backward movements. Put it another way, ‘zero’ is fundamental to all existence. Because of it, everything is possible. ‘zero’ is the additive identity, the focal point of all numbers. The numbers cannot be created without the ‘zero’. Among the great civilizations of antiquity, India alone was able to fathom the depth of emptiness and willing to accept its importance in mathematics. Following the introduction of the Indian-Arabic numerals into Western culture, ‘zero’ became a number that was used in calculations like any other number. Consequently, it lost some part of its original meaning, namely the part that suggests potentiality. Today, most mathematicians do not associate the notion of emptiness with ‘zero’, but with the ‘Empty Set’ which is a construct of set theory. This notion of emptiness is also now associated with the ‘Null Hypothesis Testing’ in statistical methods which is the backbone of modern research. Thus, it is evident that Nāgārjuna’s doctrine of ‘śūnyatā’ provided the foundation for modern epidemiology and biostatistics.1,4,6,8,10
Emptiness and Null Set: The Evolution of Natural Numbers 1,4,6,9
A set is a collection of objects or numbers. For example, the set { 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 } is a set of numbers containing five elements; it is therefore said to have the "cardinality" of 5. The Null Set or Empty Set { } is a collection that contains nothing and has the cardinality 0. The mathematician John von Neumann (1923) invented a method, known as von Neumann hierarchy, which can be employed to generate the natural numbers from the empty set as follows:
Step 0: { } (empty set)
Step 1: { { } } (set containing the empty set)
Step 2: { { }, { { } } } (set containing previous two sets)
Step 3: { { }, { { } } , { { }, { { } } } } (set containing previous three sets)
Step 4: { { }, { { } } , { { }, { { } } }, { { }, { { } } , { { }, { { } } } } } (set containing previous four sets etc.)
This sequence is obtained by iterating a function that creates a new set from the union of the preceding two sets, thus generating sets with the cardinalities 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ad infinitum. In less mathematical terms, the principle can be described as follows: Beginning with emptiness (step 0), we observe emptiness. Through the act of observing we create an entity containing emptiness (step 1). Now we perceive emptiness, as well as an entity. From the combination of the former two we create another entity by observation, which is different from the first entity (step 2). This process is repeated again and again. Interestingly, if we define suitable operations on the obtained sets based on union and intersection, the cardinalities of the resulting sets behave just like natural numbers being added and subtracted. The sequence is therefore isomorphic to the natural numbers - a stunningly beautiful example of something from nothing.
Emptiness and Null Hypothesis 1,4,6,8,10
The concept of ‘nullity’ in the ‘Null Hypothesis’ is the backbone of modern scientific research and statistical methods. The acceptance or rejection of Null Hypothesis is the fundamental basis of our scientific understandings. At the Beginning of any research, the researchers need to take a neutral stand by assuming that a set of suspected correlates or determinants are neither related not non-related to the outcome variable that is examined in the study. This neutral position by the researchers is actually the application of emptiness in order to remain unbiased throughout the study. However, the Null Hypothesis states that there is no relationship between a correlate or determinant and an outcome. In case any relationship is observed, it is merely due to chance. So, the researchers need to analytically judge from the results of their research findings on whether to accept or reject the Null Hypothesis. Various probability oriented statistical models are applied to test this Null Hypothesis in every research in order to establish the actual truth by attaching logical and analytical judgment to the findings. All these efforts are directed towards minimizing the chance factor to establish the truth with accuracy in the light of our fundamental understandings and logical reasoning. Nāgārjuna’s doctrine of ‘śūnyatā’ provided the foundation for this insight in modern epidemiology and biostatistics.
Conclusion
It is interesting to know how the ‘Sunyam’ of the Indians became the ‘zero’ of the modern world. The 'Sunya' of Sanskrit became the Arabic ‘sifr’ which means empty space. In Medieval Latin it manifested as ‘ciphra’, then in Middle English as ‘siphre’, in English as ‘cypher’ and in American as ‘cipher’. In the middle ages, the word ‘ciphra’ evolved to stand for the whole system. In the wake of this general meaning, the Latin ‘zephirum’ came to be used to denote the ‘Sunyam’. And that entered English finally as ‘zero’. In medieval Europe, some countries banned the positional number system, along with ‘zero’, brought by the Arabs whom they considered as heathens. So, they considered the ‘Sunyam’ to be a creation of the devil. As a result ‘ciphra’ came to mean a secret code. The term ‘deciphering’ later evolved from this which meant ‘resolution of a code’.1,4,5,6
The Decimal System of numerals is known as Indo-Arabic numerals even today. But it is actually a misnomer. The concept of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ first evolved in India and was later adopted by the Arabs. The archeological evidence of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ were already found on the Rock Edits of Ashoka (256 B.C.) which was curved several centuries earlier than Arab invasion.1,4,5,6
Though the concept of ‘zero’ appeared in the Indian history much earlier, but Nāgārjuna gave a new dimension of ‘nullity’ or ‘emptiness’ to the notion of ‘zero’ and made it more meaningful with regard to our philosophical understandings. The historical evidences imply that the Indian contribution of ‘zero’, which had eventually led to the evolution of the Decimal System of numbers, was a significant milestone in modern mathematics and had changed our way of thinking and understanding forever.
References
1. Knierim, T. 2009. Emptiness is Form [serial online]. [Cited 2009 October 20]; [4 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/emptiness.html
2. Bowker, J. 1997. Śūnyatā. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. UK: Encyclopedia.com. [Serial online]. [Cited 2009 April 28]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.encyclopedia.com
3. Garfield, J.L. 1995. The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way: Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika, translation (from Tibetan) and commentary. New York: Oxford University Press.
4. Srinivasiengar, C.N. 1967. The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics. Calcutta, India: World Press Private Ltd.
5. Juskevic, A.P., Demidov, S.S., Medvedev, F.A., Slavutin, E.I. 1974. Studies in the History of Mathematics. Moscow: Nauka: 220-222; 302.
6. Murthy, T.S.B. 1992. A Modern Introduction to Ancient Indian Mathematics. New Delhi, India: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
7. Williams, P. 2009. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2nd edition. UK: Routledge: 69-82.
8. Finkelstein, D.R., Wallace, B.A. ed. 2001. Emptiness and Relativity. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
9. Datta, B., Singh, A.N. 1962. History of Hindu mathematics. India: Asia Publishing House.
10. Rao, S.B. 1994. Indian Mathematics and Astronomy. Bangalore, India: Jnana Deep Publications.
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