tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-71896976447261549952024-03-08T04:14:11.853-08:00Applied Buddhism“Applied Buddhism” is the application of Buddhist teachings in our daily life. It is a broad umbrella under which all the essential aspects of life such as physical, mental, social and spiritual wellbeing as well as philosophical, bioethical, financial and modern scientific aspects could be incorporated. This includes the Buddhist ideas practiced by the three major schools of Buddhist thoughts in modern era, namely the Theravada, Mahayana and Tantrayana (Tibetan) traditions.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.comBlogger39125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-56215950091493158232010-01-09T18:11:00.001-08:002010-01-09T18:11:46.071-08:00APPLIED BUDDHISM: PHENOMENAL AND MENTAL CULTIVATIONBodhi Journal 2009; 14.<br />APPLIED BUDDHISM:<br />PHENOMENAL AND MENTAL CULTIVATION<br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, DIPAK KUMAR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br /><br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /><br />Communication Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,<br />Salt Lake City, Sector-2,<br />Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br />Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)<br /> <br />APPLIED BUDDHISM:<br />PHENOMENAL AND MENTAL CULTIVATION<br /><br /><br />Abstract<br /><br /><br />In Buddhist perspective, the phenomenal and mental cultivations refer to the successful eradication of greed, hatred and delusion. There is also no cultivation without discipline, concentration and wisdom. Although the mind is the dominant factor of all, yet only through the body and the mouth can its activities be manifested. Thus, all the three aspects are indivisible and inseparable from one another. Since, the body and the mind are correlated and inseparable from each other, the cultivation of the one aspect necessarily involves that of the other. <br /><br /><br />Key words: Cultivation, Integration, Phenomenal, Mental, Applied, Buddhism.<br /> <br />APPLIED BUDDHISM:<br />PHENOMENAL AND MENTAL CULTIVATION<br /><br />Introduction<br />The Phenomenal and mental cultivation in Buddhist perspective are numerous and diversified. Some of the common practices include sutra-reading, ritual worship, abundant offering and charitable practices, strict observance of the Canons of Discipline, Name-reciting, Ch'an Meditation, taking a journey to visit venerable monks living in secluded places and so forth. But by practicing some of these activities out of mere faith and following them routinely and meticulously in our day to day life will not lead to salvation or liberation from suffering. We must make every effort to understand the inner meanings of the teachings of the Buddha. The Buddha wanted to live through his teachings or the Dhamma. Thus, idol worship, offerings and rituals were never advocated by the Buddha and he never encouraged them either during his lifetime.1,2,3 <br /><br />The first and foremost priority in Buddhism is the true interpretations of the Dhamma. The faith and practice are secondary and are not mandatory. The success to end suffering lies in the internalization of the teachings of the Buddha. We must train and retrain our bodies, mouths and minds to attain grand-mirror-like wisdom in order to visualize all the phenomena as truly as they are.4 <br /> <br />Integration of Phenomenal and Mental Cultivation <br />In Buddhism, cultivation is classified into two aspects – (1) the phenomenal aspect of cultivation such as sutra-reading, ceremonial worship etc. which are referred as visible outward cultivation and (2) the mental aspect of cultivation which is subtle intangible inward cultivation such as self-introspection and looking into the mind. Since, the body and the mind are correlated and inseparable from each other, the cultivation of the one aspect necessarily involves that of the other. So, in the mental aspect there is the phenomenal and in the phenomenal aspect there is the mental. The better we understand the principle of cultivation, more serious would be our cultivation. In other words, more serious our cultivation, the better is our understanding of the principle. From this it may be seen that principle and practice should go together and there is no need to lean against one and neglect the other. As long as we can integrate the two aspects of cultivation harmoniously and are always mindful of the Law of Karma operating the process of cause and effect at all times.1,3,4 <br /><br /><br />Applied Buddhism in Phenomenal and Mental Cultivation2,3,5<br />At the initial stage, we can start leaning the Buddhist teachings without developing any faith or belief at the beginning or performing any Buddhist rituals. Once, we understand the true meanings of Buddhist teachings and able to relate them to our own life, then automatically we shall start applying them in our daily practice. <br />Believe and faith in Buddhism would develop gradually as our mind starts accepting the Dhamma. But we should always remember that blind faith without proper interpretation of Dhamma is never encouraged in Buddhism. The teachings of the Buddha should always be accepted with critical evaluation and analytical reasoning for our true understandings.<br /><br />Buddhism should be adopted and applied in daily practice as a philosophical, Psychological and moral foundation of our society and a way of life rather than a religion. As we often present Buddhism wrapped up in a cover of religion, the followers of other religious faiths often feel uncomfortable to learn Buddhism. They often suffer from a feeling of guilt and injustice in having wrong notion of deceiving their own religion and accepting another new one. As a result, some religious communities still possess a hostile attitude towards Buddhism. <br /><br /><br />Eradication of Three Poisons1,4,5<br />In Buddhist perspective, the phenomenal and mental cultivations refer to the successful eradication of greed, hatred and delusion. These are the three poisons which are the main cause for our attachments either to material forms or dogmatic views. It is the attachment of mind to material forms or dogmatic views that is responsible for all our sufferings in life. <br />So, all the Buddhist teachings are directed towards achieving the goal of eradication of the three poisons of greed, hatred and delusion. However, the phenomenal and mental cultivation in Buddhism advocates intensive and incessant practice. It is only by cultivating on regular and repeated occasions that we could advance nearer the goal of Enlightenment. <br /><br />If someone argues against the phenomenal and mental cultivations, he would be unaware of his own greed, hatred, stupidity, passions, prejudices and subjective thoughts and also ignorant of the objective reality of those phenomena. He would be as foolish as a patient in serious condition refusing to take medical treatment. <br /><br /><br />Purification of the Activities Involving Body, Mouth and Mind <br />All human activities generally involve the use of three aspects of the human anatomy as the body, mouth and mind. Although the mind is the dominant factor of all, yet only through the body and the mouth can its activities be manifested. Thus, all the three aspects are indivisible and inseparable from one another. This is same as the case of wave which is inseparable from water and itself is also water. So, illusion is also inseparable from truth. All activities, including the cultivation of mind, are manifestations of the True Nature. It is also appropriate to refer that all Dhammas are related to the cultivation of the True Nature. Hence, more the cultivation more is the manifestation of the True Nature and more the benefits of mankind.1,4,5 <br />Practice of Discipline, Concentration and Wisdom<br />The phenomenal and mental faculties need to be trained and retrained to become pure and stainless. This is known as Mental Purification. In Buddhism there is no cultivation without discipline, concentration and wisdom. There is no Dhamma without discipline, concentration and wisdom. These three-fold studies are the basic tenet for learning and cultivating Buddhism. When the phenomenal and mental faculties are morally restrained, it is Discipline. When the phenomenal and mental faculties are calm and still, it is Concentration. When the phenomenal and mental faculties illuminate unobtrusively and freely, it is Wisdom.1,4<br /><br />Discipline, Concentration and Wisdom are the triple functions inherent in the True Nature. In other words, these are the three aspects of the same thing. The fundamental objective of cultivation is to orient the body, mouth and mind to the True Nature by evoking these three functions.1,4 <br /><br />It is only by cultivating Buddhism in accordance with this fundamental principle that the beneficial effects of turning the mind from defilement into purity, from chaos into stability and from delusion into understanding may be achieved. We should finally realize that there is neither purity nor impurity; neither motion nor stillness; neither wisdom nor attainment of any sort. This is the fundamental expression of the True Nature.1,4<br /><br /> <br />Conclusion<br />In Buddhist perspective, the phenomenal and mental cultivations refer to the successful eradication of greed, hatred and delusion. Although the mind is the dominant factor of all, yet only through the body and the mouth can its activities be manifested. Thus, all the three aspects are indivisible and inseparable from one another. Since, the body and the mind are correlated and inseparable from each other, the cultivation of the one aspect necessarily involves that of the other. So, in the mental aspect there is the phenomenal and in the phenomenal aspect there is the mental. In Buddhism there is also no cultivation without discipline, concentration and wisdom.1,4 <br /><br />With this background of the benefits of phenomenal and mental cultivations, it is now time to send a clear message to everyone for the eradication of all unwarranted apprehensions related to Buddhism. It has to be borne in mind that Buddhism never interferes with the socio-cultural or religious practices of any community. So, any person belonging to any other religious community can feel free to learn Buddhism and apply the Buddhist teachings in his daily life to end suffering, without changing his own religion or getting converted into Buddhism.2,3,5<br /> <br />References<br /><br />1. Manabu, W. 2008. Self-Cultivation and the Body in Religious Traditions: From the Point of View of the History of Religions. Shūkyō kenkyū. Japan: Annual Convention of the Japanese Association for Religious Studies No66. 81(355):98. <br /><br />2. Barua, A., Basilio, M.A. 2009. Applied Buddhism in Modern Science: Episode 1. Hong Kong: Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen & Unibook Publications.<br /><br />3. Barua, A., Testerman, N., Basilio, M.A. 2009. Applied Buddhism the Foundation of Our True Understanding. Hong Kong: Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen & Unibook Publications.<br /><br />4. Chatterjee, A.K. 1975. The Yogācāra Idealism. Varnasi, India: Bhargava Bhushan Press, the Banaras Hindu University Press. <br /><br />5. Barua, D.K. 2005. Environment & Human Resources: Buddhist Approaches. Applied Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern Perspectives. . Varanasi, India: Centre for Buddhist Studies, Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies, Benaras Hindu University: 90-6.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-34242562619922856482010-01-09T17:53:00.001-08:002010-01-09T17:53:41.302-08:00DEVELOP MIRROR-LIKE WISDOMDEVELOP MIRROR-LIKE WISDOM<br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, N. TESTERMAN, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br /><br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /><br /><br />Communication Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,<br />Salt Lake City, Sector-2,<br />Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br />Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)<br /> <br /> DEVELOP MIRROR-LIKE WISDOM<br /><br /><br />Abstarct<br /><br /><br />The Yogācāra school of Buddhist thought was founded by the two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu in the fifth century. The most famous innovation of the Yogācāra School was the doctrine of eight consciousnesses and it upheld the concept that consciousness (vijñāna) is real, but its objects of constructions are unreal. The key emphasis of Yogācāra is on insight meditation which is actually considered to be a means of abandoning delusions about the self and about the world. When the storehouse consciousness is finally transformed into the grand-mirror-like wisdom, it reflects the entire universe without distortion. This wisdom can perceive many objects accurately and simultaneously.<br /><br /><br />Key Words: Mind, Manas, Ālaya, Consciousness, Insight, Meditation.<br /> <br /> DEVELOP MIRROR-LIKE WISDOM<br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />The Yogācāra school of Buddhist thought was founded by the two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu in the fifth century. Yogācāra was a synthesis created in response to all existing schools of Buddhism during the third century BC. Yogācāra extracted the common teachings from all the Buddhist traditions and made an attempt to resolve the problems that most of them were facing. The key epistemological and metaphysical insights of Yogācāra evolved from the common Buddhist belief that knowledge comes only from the senses (vijnapti). With a new insight, Yogācāra proposed that the mind, itself, was an aspect of vijnapti.1,2,3,4<br /><br />Asanga further recognized that though the mind can sense its own objects, which are known as thoughts (apperception), but it cannot verify its own interpretation. As the senses are constantly misinterpreted, our thoughts (apperceptions) are also misinterpreted in the same way. These misconceptions are instinctive and nearly universal because they are caused by the desires, fears and anxieties that come with animal survival. This results in an automatic assumption of substance for self and objects (atman and dharma) which are created to suppress our fears.1,3,4,5<br /><br /> <br />Various Types of Consciousness in Yogācāra<br />The most famous innovation of the Yogācāra School was the doctrine of eight consciousnesses. Early Buddhism and Abhidhamma described six consciousnesses, each produced by the contact between its specific sense organ and a corresponding sense object. Thus, when a functioning eye comes into contact with a color or shape, visual consciousness is produced. Consciousness does not create the sensory sphere, but is an effect of the interaction of a sense organ and its true object. If an eye does not function but an object is present, visual consciousness does not arise. The same is true if a functional eye fails to encounter a visual object.5,6,7,8,9<br /><br />Arising of consciousness is dependent on sensation. There are altogether six sense organs (eye, ear, nose, mouth, body, and mind) which interact with their respective sensory object domains like visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, and mental spheres. Here, the mind is considered to be another sense organ as it functions like the other senses. It involves the activity of a sense organ (manas), its domain (mano-dhātu) and the resulting consciousness (mano-vijñāna). Each domain is discrete and function independent of the other. Hence, the deaf can see and the blind can hear. Objects are also specific to their domain and the same is true of the consciousnesses like the visual consciousness is entirely distinct from auditory consciousness. There are six distinct types of consciousness namely, the visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile and mental consciousness.5,6,7,8,9<br /><br />The six sense organs, six sense object domains and six resulting consciousnesses comprise our eighteen components of experience and are known as the eighteen dhātus. According to Buddhism, these eighteen dhātus are the comprehensive sensorium of everything in the universe.6,7,8,9<br /><br />As Abhidhamma grew more complex, disputes intensified between different Buddhist schools along a range of issues. In order to avoid the idea of a permanent self, Buddhists said citta is momentary. Since a new citta apperceives a new cognitive field each moment, the apparent continuity of mental states was explained causally by claiming each citta, in the moment it ceased, also acted as cause for the arising of its successor. This was fine for continuous perceptions and thought processes, but difficulties arose since Buddhists identified a number of situations in which no citta at all was present or operative, such as deep sleep, unconsciousness, and certain meditative conditions explicitly defined as devoid of citta (āsaṃjñī-samāpatti, nirodha-samāpatti). So, the controversial questions were: from where does consciousness reemerge after deep sleep? How does consciousness begin in a new life? The various Buddhist attempts to answer these questions led to more difficulties and disputes. For Yogācāra the most important problems revolved around questions of causality and consciousness.6,7,8,9<br /><br /> <br />Yogācārins responded by rearranging the tripartite structure of the mental level of the eighteen dhātus into three novel types of consciousnesses. Mano-vijñāna (empirical consciousness) became the sixth consciousness processing the cognitive content of the five senses as well as mental objects (thoughts, ideas). Manas became the seventh consciousness, which was primarily obsessed with various aspects and notions of "self". Hence, it was called "defiled manas" (kliṣṭa-manas). The eighth consciousness, ālaya-vijñāna also known as "warehouse consciousness," was totally novel.6,7,8,9<br /><br /><br /><br />Four Wisdoms from Eight Consciousnesses7,8,9<br />(1) The first five perceptual consciousnesses are transformed into the Wisdom of Successful Performance. This wisdom is characterized by pure and unimpeded functioning (no attachment or distortion) in its relation to the (sense) organs and their objects. <br /><br />(2) The sixth consciousness is the perceptual and cognitive processing center. It is transformed into the Wisdom of Wonderful Contemplation which has two aspects corresponding to understanding of the “emptiness of self” and that of the “emptiness of Dhammas”. <br /><br />(3) The seventh consciousness defiles the first six consciousnesses with self and self-related afflictions. It is transformed into the Wisdom of Equality which understands the nature of the equality of self and of all other beings. <br /><br />(4) The eighth, the storehouse consciousness, is transformed into the grand-mirror-like wisdom. This wisdom reflects the entire universe without distortion. Like mirror can reflect many objects simultaneously, the wisdom can perceive many objects accurately and simultaneously. This can be achieved by proper transformation of the Ālaya-vijñāna to this wisdom and is considered to be the state of the Buddhahood. <br /><br />A similar principle is applied in the modern telescopes for observing the universe. The lens of a modern telescope is replaced by a mirror in order to avoid chromatic aberrations. Mirror of the telescope reflects the true image of the space and universe.<br /><br /> <br />Conclusion<br />In Yogācāra concept, true knowledge begins when consciousness ends. Thus, “Enlightenment” is considered as the act of bringing the eight consciousnesses to an end and replacing them with enlightened cognitive abilities (jñāna). Here, the sixth consciousness (Manas) becomes the immediate cognition of equality (samatā-jñāna) by equalizing self and other. When the Warehouse Consciousness finally ceases it is replaced by the Great Mirror Cognition (Mahādarśa-jñāna) that sees and reflects things truly as they are (yathā-bhūtam).5,6,8<br /><br />Thus, the grasper-grasped relationship ceases and the mind projects the things impartially without exclusion, prejudice, anticipation, attachment, or distortion. These "purified" cognitions remove the self-bias, prejudice and obstructions that had previously prevented a person from perceiving beyond his selfish consciousness. Since enlightened cognition is non-conceptual, its objects cannot be described. So, the Yogācāra School could not provide any description regarding the outcome of these types of enlightened cognitions except for referring these as 'pure' (of imaginative constructions).3,5,8<br /><br /> <br />References<br />1. Keenan, J.P. 1988. Buddhist Yogācāra Philosophy as Ancilla Theologiae. Japanese Religions 15: 36.<br />2. Pensgard, D. 2006. Yogācāra Buddhism: A sympathetic description and suggestion for use in Western theology and philosophy of religion. JSRI 15:94-103.<br />3. Lusthaus, D. 2002. Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogācāra Buddhism and the Ch’eng Wei-shih lun. New York: Routledge Curzon.<br />4. Suzuki, D.T. 1998. Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra. New Delhi: India Munshiram Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd. <br />5. Chatterjee, A.K. 1975. The Yogācāra Idealism. Varnasi, India: Bhargava Bhushan Press, the Banaras Hindu University Press. <br />6. Tripathi, C.L.1972. The Problem of Knowledge in Yogācāra Buddhism. Varnasi, India: Bharat-Bharati Press.<br />7. King, R.1994. Early Yogācāra and its relationship with the Madhyamika school. Philosophy East & West 44: 659.<br />8. King, R. 1998. Vijnaptimatrata and the Abhidhamma context of early Yogācāra. Asian Philosophy 8(1): 5.<br />9. Yin, J. 2009. Yogācāra school and Faxiang school. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies, the University of Hong Kong.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-72264137550795497022010-01-09T17:49:00.000-08:002010-01-09T17:50:03.567-08:00IGNORE SELF-ENTITY: CULTIVATE THE MINDIGNORE SELF-ENTITY: CULTIVATE THE MIND<br /><br /><br /><br />A. BARUA, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br /><br /><br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /><br /><br />Communication Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,<br />Salt Lake City, Sector-2,<br />Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br />Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)<br /> <br />IGNORE SELF-ENTITY: CULTIVATE THE MIND<br /><br />Abstract<br /><br /><br />Buddhism is the only world religion which does not recognize nor non-recognize the presence of any soul or self-entity. Whether a soul or a self-entity is present or absent was never answered by the Buddha. These questions are categorized as unanswered questions in Buddhism which the Buddha had insisted to be put aside (thapaniya) as they always lead to suffering and never address the issue of cessation of suffering. The Anatta teaching in Buddhism is not a doctrine of no-self, but a not-self strategy for shedding suffering by letting go of its cause that leads to the highest level of unlimited happiness. Without viewing anything as pertaining to “self” or “other”, we should recognize each phenomenon simply for what it is, as it is directly experienced and then perform the duty appropriate for it. <br /><br /><br />Key words: Self, Entity, Soul, Cultivation, Mind, Four Noble Truths.<br /> <br />IGNORE SELF-ENTITY: CULTIVATE THE MIND<br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />A unique feature of Buddhist teachings is the emphasis on Anatta, which is often translated as no-self. Buddhism is the only world religion which does not recognize nor non-recognize the presence of any soul or self-entity.1,2 In fact, Buddhism holds a neutral position in this context. Many modern scholars misinterpret the teachings of the Buddha and believe that Buddhism does not believe in soul or self-entity. But the fact is that, whether a soul or a self-entity is present or absent was never answered by the Buddha. These questions are categorized as unanswered questions in Buddhism which the Buddha had insisted to be put aside (thapaniya) as they always lead to suffering and never address the issue of cessation of suffering.1,2,3 Thus, the Buddhist philosophy is similar to modern science where the scientists also hold a neutral position in this aspect as no one has ever discovered a soul or a self-entity till date.4<br /><br /><br />The word “self” is a misnomer in Buddhism<br />Buddhism trains us not to identify ourselves with the soul or self-entity as these would lead to ego problems and discrimination in our minds. But it never regards or disregards the presence or absence of soul or self-entity.<br />This creates confusion in the minds of the religious practitioners belonging to other religious backgrounds. This concept does not fit well with the Judeo-Christian, Hindu, Muslim and Jain background which assumes the existence of an eternal soul or self as a basic presupposition. There is often an argument on the issue that if there is no-self then what is transmitted from one life to the other. If there is no soul or self-entity then what is the purpose of a spiritual life. Also, the idea of there being no-self does not fit well with other Buddhist teachings such as the doctrine of Karma and Rebirth. If there is no self then what experiences the results of Karma and takes rebirth is a debatable issue.1,2,4<br /><br />While understanding the background why the Buddha had observed silence to address this issue, we must remember that Buddhism never interfered with existing local socio-cultural practices and laws of the country. Wherever Buddhism had spread, it had recognized and incorporated the existing socio-cultural practices of the community and modified its own rules and regulations accordingly. This is an important reason why Buddhism has become a world religion without inflicting any harm or exerting any force on anyone. As the concepts of soul and self-entity were deep-rooted in Indian culture and society since ancient times and the fundamental block for existing Brahmanism, Buddhism did not want to go for an outright clash on this issue and disturb the peace and harmony of the society. Buddhism had assumed a neutral position and never supported or disregarded the ancient Indian beliefs of soul and self-entity.4,5<br /> <br />The Concept of No-Self (Anatta) in Buddhism<br />If we explore the Pali Canon, the earliest extant record of the Buddha's teachings, we find that the Buddha had never addressed the issues related to soul or self-entity. In fact, when the Buddha was asked whether or not there was a soul or self, he refused to answer. He urged that to hold either that there is a self or that there is no self is to fall into extreme forms of wrong view that make the path of Buddhist practice impossible (Samyutta Nikaya XLIV.10). Thus, the question should be put aside (thapaniya) as these types of questions do not lead to the end the suffering and stress.1,2,3<br /><br />There are some basic ground rules for interpreting the Buddha's teachings. The Buddha said that there are two types of people who misrepresented him. The first category of people comprised of those who drew inferences from statements that should not have inferences drawn from them. The second category included those who did not draw inferences from those which needed. But if we look at the way most scholars had addressed the Anatta doctrine, we find these ground rules being ignored. Some of the scholars tried to qualify the no-self interpretation by saying that the Buddha denied the existence of an eternal self or a separate self. If we accept this view then this means to give an analytical answer to a question that the Buddha insisted to be put aside.1,2,3 <br /><br />Some other scholars however, tried to draw inferences from the few statements in the discourse that implied that there is no-self. In this case, they forced those statements to give an answer to a question that should be put aside. Here, one was drawing inferences where it should not be drawn in the first place. These were attempts to refer the teachings of the Buddha out of context. We need to examine under what circumstances the Buddha gave his discourses. Quoting the Buddha out of context in order to win an argument is itself an example of our attachment of the minds to cling on to a dogmatic view.1,2,3 <br /><br /><br />Parable of the Poisoned Arrow3<br />It is against this background that we need to understand why Buddhism has set aside (thapaniya) certain questions as undetermined (avyakata). Nothing illustrates this situation better than the parable of the poisoned arrow (sallupama). When the monk Malunkyaputta wanted to know from the Buddha the answers to these ten questions, the Buddha told him that these questions are “undetermined, set aside, and rejected” by the Blessed One. The answers to these questions were not relevant to understanding the fact of suffering and its elimination. It was as irrelevant as the need to know the name of the person who shot the arrow in order to remove it from the body. But here we should keep in mind that the parable of the poisoned arrow implied indirectly that questions regarding who shot the arrow could be answered, though they were irrelevant for the purpose of a cure. So, the questions of soul and self-entity were not undetermined questions (avyakata), but they were irrelevant and should be put aside (thapaniya) in Buddhist perspective.<br /> <br />The Four Noble Truths1,2,4,5<br />Instead of answering “yes” or "no" to the question of whether or not there is a soul or self-entity that is interconnected or separate, eternal or not, the Buddha considered these questions as irrelevant and inappropriate. This is because, no matter how we define "self" and "other," the notion of self involves an element of self-identification and clinging and thus suffering and stress. The notion of “self” is thus an attachment that leads to ego and thus culminates in suffering.<br /><br />If we identify ourselves with all of nature, then we feel pain by the death of every creature or plant on earth. If we do not identify with anything at all in nature, then it holds for an entirely "other" universe. In this case, the sense of alienation would become so debilitating as to make the quest for happiness, whether for one's own or that of other, as impossible. Considering these reasons, the Buddha advised paying no attention to such questions as "Do I exist?" or "Don't I exist?" for whatever manner we answer them; they lead to suffering and stress. We must remember that the prime goal of Buddhism is to end suffering for all sentient beings through the phenomenal and mental cultivations. <br /><br />To avoid the suffering implicit in questions of "self" and "other," the Buddha had offered an alternative way of dividing up experience. This is through his preaching of the Four Noble Truths that includes Dukkha our sufferings, cause of suffering, its cessation, and the path to cessation of suffering. Stress should be comprehended. Its cause should be abandoned. Its cessation should be realized and the path to its cessation should be developed. The main cause of our suffering is the attachment of our mind either to material forms or dogmatic views. We need to shed these clinging or attachments and keep our mind wide open all the time. Without viewing anything as pertaining to “self” or “other”, we should recognize each phenomenon simply for what it is, as it is directly experienced and then perform the duty appropriate for it. <br /><br /><br />Conclusion<br />Through the cultivation of mind if we are able to comprehend the inner meanings of the Four Noble Truths, then the common questions that earlier occurred in our minds as "Is there a self? What is my self?" would cease to occur. Instead, our mind would reframe these questions as "Am I suffering stress because I'm holding onto this particular phenomenon? Is it really me, myself, or mine? If it is stressful, but not really me or mine, then why should I hold on?" This would help us in comprehending suffering and help us to abandon our attachment and clinging with regard to the residual sense of self-identification. This would finally lead to the limitless freedom until ultimately all traces of self-identification are gone. In this context, we must remember that the Anatta teaching in Buddhism is not a doctrine of no-self, but a not-self strategy for shedding suffering by letting go of its cause that leads to the highest level of unlimited happiness. Once there is an experience of such total freedom, there would be no concern about who is experiencing it or whether there is any self or not.1,2<br />References<br />1. Bhikkhu, T. 2009. Anatta: The Concept of No-self in Buddhism [serial online]. [cited 2009 October 26]; [4 screens]. The Wanderling. Available from: URL: http://www.angelfire.com/electronic/awakening101/noself.html<br /><br />2. V, Jayaram. 2009. The Buddhist Concept of Anatta or No-self (Anatma) [serial online]. [cited 2009 October 31]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.hinduwebsite.com/buddhism/anatta.asp<br /><br />3. Karunadasa, Y. 2008. The Unanswered Questions: Why were they left unanswered? A New Interpretation based on a Re-examination of the Textual Data. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies, the University of Hong Kong. <br /><br />4. Barua, A., Testerman, N., Basilio, M.A. 2009. Applied Buddhism the Foundation of Our True Understanding. Hong Kong: Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen & Unibook Publications.<br /><br />5. Barua, D.K. 2005. Environment & Human Resources: Buddhist Approaches. Applied Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern Perspectives. . Varanasi, India: Centre for Buddhist Studies, Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies, Benaras Hindu University: 90-6.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-38802206640064189342010-01-09T17:45:00.001-08:002010-01-09T17:45:47.655-08:00APPLICATION OF BUDDHIST ECONOMICS IN PREVENTION OF GLOBAL CREDIT CRISISAPPLICATION OF BUDDHIST ECONOMICS IN PREVENTION OF GLOBAL CREDIT CRISIS<br /> <br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, DIPAK KUMAR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br /><br />The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong &<br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br /><br /><br /><br />Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,<br />SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,<br /> KOLKATA – 700 091<br />WEST BENGAL, INDIA<br />Tel: +91-33-23215586<br />Mobile: +919434485543<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br /><br /> <br />APPLICATION OF BUDDHIST ECONOMICS IN PREVENTION OF GLOBAL CREDIT CRISIS<br /><br /><br />Abstract<br /><br /><br />Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also to lead to a more democratic society. <br /><br /><br />An important truth is that no economic system is value-free. Every system of production and consumption encourages the development of certain values and discourages others. So, it is not possible for economics to be free of values when, in fact, it is rooted in the human mind. The economic process begins with want, continues with choice and ends with satisfaction. All of these are functions of the mind. We need to give up our attachments to material wealth and conquer greed and obsession for social recognition at individual level in order to make the economy value free. <br />Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.<br /><br /><br />The practice of ‘Dāna’ or ‘giving’ is the traditional Buddhist way of redistribution of wealth. Dāna is selfless giving. It is giving in the spirit of Non-clinging. Non-clinging is the Wisdom of Insight into the Insubstantiality (Anattā; Nairātmya) or Emptiness (Śūnyatā) of all things. The emphasis on ‘Dāna’ and merit-making is the Buddhist contribution to the healthy and uniform economic globalization. <br /><br /><br />Key words: Dāna, Globalization, Buddhism, Applied, Redistribution, Wealth, Economy.<br /> <br />APPLICATION OF BUDDHIST ECONOMICS IN PREVENTION OF GLOBAL CREDIT CRISIS<br /><br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also lead to the formation of a more democratic society.1,2 The concept of globalization is important for Buddhism because Buddhism is a global, world faith. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.1,2<br /><br /><br />A Buddhist Perception of Globalization<br />Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. This results in the progressive integration of economies of nations across the world through the unrestricted flow of global trade and investment. The mainstream approach is generally rooted in the underlying assumption that globalization brings jobs, technology, income and wealth to societies. In order to make this strategy of globalization successful, all the societies must be willing to submit to the principles of the free market—limiting public spending, privatizing public services, removing barriers to foreign investment, strengthening export production and controlling inflation. However, this is very difficult task to achieve within a short span of time. As a result, most often, globalized production has led to a litany of social and ecological crises: poverty and powerlessness of the majority of people, destruction of community, depletion of natural resources and unendurable pollution.1,2,3<br /><br /><br /><br />Application of Buddhist Economics in Prevention of Global Credit Crisis<br />The traditional Buddhist teachings have many important social implications. Buddhism does not separate economic issues from ethical or spiritual ones. The notion that economics is a "social science" related to discovering and applying impersonal economic laws always obscures two important truths. First important truth is that the concept of who gets what and who does not depends on moral considerations. So, production and distribution of economic goods and services should not be left only to the supposedly objective rules of the marketplace. If some people have much more than what they need while others have much less, some sort of redistribution is necessary.1,2,4,5 <br /><br /><br />Thus, the practice of ‘Dāna’ or ‘giving’ is the traditional Buddhist way of redistribution of wealth. Dāna is selfless giving. It is giving in the spirit of Non-clinging. Non-clinging is the Wisdom of Insight into the Insubstantiality (Anattā; Nairātmya) or Emptiness (Śūnyatā) of all things. The emphasis on ‘Dāna’ and merit-making is the Buddhist perspective on the economic globalization.1,2,4,5<br /><br /><br />The second important truth is that no economic system is value-free. Every system of production and consumption encourages the development of certain values and discourages others. The economic process begins with want, continues with choice and ends with satisfaction. All of these are functions of the mind. Abstract values are thus the beginning, the middle and the end of economics. So it is impossible for economics to be value-free. Yet many economists avoid any consideration of values, ethics or mental qualities, despite the fact that these will always have a bearing on economic concerns.1,2,4,5<br /><br /><br />At present, without the help from government and industry for boosting a new direction in policy, people are starting to change the economy from the bottom up towards more human-scale structures which are more consistent with the Buddhist viewpoint. This process of localization has begun spontaneously, in countless communities all around the world. Because economic localization means an adaptation to cultural and biological diversity, no single strategy would be applicable everywhere.3,6 <br />The range of possibilities for local grassroots efforts is as diverse as the locales in which they take place. In many towns community banks and loan funds have been set up, thereby increasing the capital available to local residents and businesses. This system is promoting people to invest in their neighbors and their community, rather than in a faceless global economy. In other communities, ‘buy-local’ campaigns are helping locally owned businesses survive even when pitted against heavily subsidized corporate competitors. These campaigns not only help to keep money from leaking out of the local economy, but also help educate people about the hidden costs in purchasing cheaper, but distantly produced products. 3,6<br /><br /><br />In some communities, Local Exchange and Trading Systems (LETS) have been established as an organized, large-scale bartering system. Thus, even people with little or no ‘real’ money can participate in and benefit from the local economy. LETS systems have been particularly beneficial in areas with high unemployment. The city government of Birmingham, England, where unemployment hovers at 20%, is a co-sponsor of a highly successful LETS scheme. These initiatives have psychological benefits that are just as important as the economic benefits. A large number of people, who were once merely ‘unemployed’ and therefore treated as ‘useless’, are becoming valued for their skills and knowledge.3,6<br /><br /><br />One of the most exciting grassroots efforts is the Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) movement, in which consumers in towns and cities link up directly with a nearby farmer. In some cases, consumers purchase an entire season’s produce in advance, sharing the risk with the farmer. In others, shares of the harvest are purchased in monthly or quarterly installments. Consumers usually have a chance to visit the farm where their food is grown, and in some cases their help on the farm is welcomed. While small farmers linked to the industrial system continue to fail every year at an alarming rate, CSAs are allowing small-scale diversified farms to thrive in growing numbers. CSAs have spread rapidly throughout Europe, North America, Australia and Japan. In the United States, the number of CSAs has climbed from only two in 1986 to 200 in 1992, and is closer to 1,000 today.3,6<br /><br /><br />Buddhism provides us with both the imperative and the tools to challenge the economic structures that are creating and perpetuating suffering the world over. We cannot claim to be Buddhist and simultaneously support structures which are so clearly contrary to Buddha’s teachings, unethical to life itself. The economic and structural changes needed should involve rediscovering the deep psychological benefits of joy of being embedded in the community and this fundamental shift would also involve the reintroduction of a sense of connection with the place where we live. Buddhists in China also faced with this same reality earlier.4,5,7 <br /> <br />Thus, over the time Buddhism became more focused to become engaged. However, as the Buddha taught, our spiritual awakening comes from making a connection to others and to the nature. This requires us to see the world within us and to experience more consciously the great interdependent web of life. In this way the principles of impermanence and interdependence exhort us to interact with others and with nature in a wise, compassionate and sustainable way.4,5,7<br /><br /><br /><br />Conclusion <br />Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism shows us the possibility of a better way of leading a stress-free life. However, from a materialistic perspective and the "social science" of economics, such philosophical and spiritual understanding of life are considered as superstitious and escapist.4,5,7 The teachings of the Buddha are based on a different way of understanding the relationship between ourselves and the world. From the Buddhist perspective, economic growth and consumerism are unsatisfactory alternatives because they evade the basic problem of life, which is suffering, by distracting us with symbolic substitutes such as money, status and power. <br /><br /> <br />References<br /><br />1. Quang, T.T. 2009. Buddhism and Globalization. Bliss and Growth. Blag Biz. <br />2. Loy, D. 2007. A Buddhist View of Globalization. Buddhist Peace Fellowship. Japan: Bunkyo University. <br />3. Power, G. 1997. Globalization and its Discontents in Development. The Journal of the Society for International Development 40(2). <br />4. Hodge, H.N. 2009. Buddhism in the Global Economy. Berkeley, US: ISEC. <br />5. Payutto, P.A. 1994. Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place. (translated by Dhammavijaya and Bruce Evans) Second Edition. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation.<br />6. Schumacher, E.F. 1975. Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered. New York: Harper. <br />7. Sizemore, R.F., Swearer, D.K., ed. 1990. Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-775690591544814122010-01-09T17:44:00.002-08:002010-01-09T17:45:07.639-08:00APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISISAPPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS<br /> <br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, DIPAK KUMAR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br /><br />The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong &<br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br /><br /><br /><br />Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,<br />SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,<br /> KOLKATA – 700 091<br />WEST BENGAL, INDIA<br />Tel: +91-33-23215586<br />Mobile: +919434485543<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br /><br /> <br />APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS<br /><br />Abstract<br /><br /><br />Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.<br /><br /><br />An important truth is that no economic system is value-free. Every system of production and consumption encourages the development of certain values and discourages others. So, it is not possible for economics to be free of values when, in fact, it is rooted in the human mind. The economic process begins with want, continues with choice and ends with satisfaction. All of these are functions of the mind. We need to give up our attachments to material wealth and conquer greed and obsession for social recognition at individual level in order to make the economy value free. <br /><br />Key words: Globalization, Buddhism, Applied, Wealth, Economy.<br /> <br />APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS<br /><br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />The issue of globalization is directly or indirectly affecting all our lives. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also lead to the formation of a more democratic society. Unfortunately, the effects of the globalization of business and trade are often disastrous for underdeveloped nations. These nations provide the raw materials and cheap labor which are necessary to make globalization prosperous for the more developed nations. Though there are successes in the process of globalization, there is much unrest in the poor and underdeveloped nations which are deep in debt and suffer internal conflict, poverty, droughts and famines.1,2<br /><br /><br />The concept of globalization is important for Buddhism because Buddhism is a global, world faith. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.1,2<br /> <br />Buddhism and the Problem of Global Economic Crisis <br />When we evaluate an economic system, we should consider not only how efficiently it produces and distributes goods, but also its effects on human values, and through them its larger social effects. The collective values that it encourages should be consistent with the individual Buddhist values that reduce the Dukkha. As the individual and social values cannot be delinked, the crucial issue remains as whether our economic system is conducive to the ethical and spiritual development of its members. <br /><br /><br />Much of the philosophical reflection on economics has focused on questions about human nature. Those who defend market capitalism argue that its emphasis on competition and personal gain is grounded in the fact that humans are fundamentally self-centered and self-interested. Critics of capitalism argue that our basic nature is more cooperative and generous that is, we are naturally more selfless.3,4<br /><br /><br />Buddhism avoids that debate by taking a different approach. The Buddha emphasized that we all have both unwholesome and unwholesome traits (kusala / akusalamula). The important issue is the practical matter of how to reduce our unwholesome characteristics and develop the more wholesome ones. This process is symbolized by the lotus flower. Although rooted in the mud and muck at the bottom of a pond, the lotus grows upwards to bloom on the surface, thus representing our potential to purify ourselves.5 Our unwholesome characteristics are usually summarized as the "three poisons" or three roots of evil: lobha - greed, dosa - anger and moha - delusion. The goal of the Buddhist way of life is to eliminate these roots by transforming them into their positive counterparts: greed into generosity (Dāna), anger into loving-kindness (metta), and delusion into wisdom (prajna).5,6 <br /><br /><br />Economists talk about demand, but their concern to be objective and value-neutral does not allow them to evaluate different types of demand. The "engine" of the economic process is the desire for continual profits and in order to keep making those profits people must consume more. Harnessing this type of motivation has been extraordinarily successful depending on your definition of success. According to the Worldwatch Institute, more goods and services were consumed in the forty years between 1950 and 1990 (measured in constant dollars) than by all the previous generations in human history. According to the United Nations Human Development Report for 1999, the world spent at least $435 billion the previous year for advertising, plus well over $100 billion for public relations and marketing. The result is 270 million "global teens" who now inhabit a single pop-culture world, consuming the same designer clothes, music and soft drinks.3,4<br /><br /><br />While this growth has given us opportunities that our grandparents never dreamed of, we have also become more sensitive to the negative consequences such as its staggering ecological impact and the worsening mal-distribution of this wealth. A child in the developed countries consumes and pollutes 30 to 50 times as much as a poor one in an undeveloped country, according to the same UNHDR. Today 1.2 billion people survive on less than a dollar a day and almost half the world's population live on less than two dollars a day. The 20% of people in the richest countries enjoy 86% of the world's consumption, the poorest 20% only 1.3%. Thus, the gap of globalization is increasing and not decreasing.3,4<br /><br /><br />From a Buddhist perspective, the fundamental problem with consumerism is the delusion that genuine happiness can be found this way. If insatiable desires (tanha) are the source of the frustration (dukkha) that we experience in our daily lives, then such consumption, which distracts us and intoxicates us, is not the solution to our unhappiness but one of its main symptoms. That brings us to the final irony of this addiction to consumption: also according to the 1999 UNHDR, the percentage of Americans who considered themselves happy peaked in 1957, despite the fact that consumption per person has more than doubled since then. At the same time, studies of U.S. households have found that between 1986 and 1994 the amount of money people think they need to live happily has doubled. That seems paradoxical, but it is not difficult to explain. When we define ourselves as consumers, we can never have enough. For reasons we never quite understand, consumerism never really gives us what we want from it; it works by keeping us thinking that the next thing we buy will satisfy us.4,5,7,8<br /><br /><br />Higher incomes have certainly enabled many people to become more generous, but this has not been their main effect, because capitalism is based upon a very different principle: that capital should be used to create more capital. Rather than redistributing our wealth, we prefer to invest that wealth as a means to accumulate more and spend more, regardless of whether or not we need more. In fact, the question of whether or not we really need more has become rather quaint; you can never be too rich.4,5,6,8<br /><br /><br />This way of thinking has become natural for us, but it is uncommon in societies where advertising has not yet conditioned people into believing that happiness is something you purchase. International development agencies have been slow to realize what anthropologists have long understood. In traditional cultures, income is not the primary criterion of well-being and sometimes it is not even a major one. The person who is sometimes ranked as poorest by the common people in a community is often a man who is probably the only person receiving a salary.6,7,8 <br /><br /><br />Our obsession with economic growth seems natural to us because we have forgotten the hierarchy of "needs" that we often take for granted. We project our own values when we assume that a person must be unhappy by presuming that the only way to become happy is to start on the treadmill of a lifestyle increasingly preoccupied with consumption. However, the importance of self-limitation, which requires some degree of non-attachment, is an essential human attribute to remain happy according to Buddhism. This is expressed better in a Tibetan Buddhist analogy. The world is full of thorns and sharp stones (and now broken glass too). What should we do about this? One solution is to pave over the entire earth, but a simpler alternative is to wear shoes. "Paving the whole planet" is a good metaphor for how our collective technological and economic project is attempting to make us happy. Without the wisdom of self-limitation, we will not be satisfied even when we have used up all the earth's resources. The other solution is for our minds to learn how to "wear shoes," so that our collective ends become an expression of the renewable means that the biosphere provides.5,6,8<br /><br /><br />Our evangelical efforts to economically "develop" other societies, which cherish their own spiritual values and community traditions, might be viewed as a contemporary form of religious imperialism. Conventional economic theory assumes that resources are limited but our desires are infinitely expandable. As we know, desire leads to frustration and it is a major cause of anger and hatred. Without self-limitation desire also becomes a cause for conflict. From a Buddhist point of view, our economic emphasis on competition and individual gain encourages the development of anger and hatred in the mind rather than cultivating the loving-kindness. A society where people do not feel that they benefit from sharing with each other is a society that has already begun to break down. The Buddha warned against negative feelings such as envy (issa) and avarice (macchariya). Issa becomes intense when certain possessions are enjoyed by one section of society while another section does not have the opportunity to acquire them. Macchariya is the selfish enjoyment of goods while greedily guarding them from others. A society in which these psychological tendencies predominate may be materially wealthy but it is spiritually poor.3,5,6,7,8<br /><br /><br />The globalization of market capitalism is a victory for "free trade" over the inefficiencies of protectionism and special interests. Free trade seems to realize in the economic sphere the supreme value that we place on freedom. It optimizes access to resources and markets. But despite its success, it is only one historically-conditioned way of understanding and reorganizing the world. However, if we view "free trade" from a different perspective provided by Buddhism, we shall understand that such an idea helps us to see presuppositions usually taken for granted. The Buddhist critique of a value-free economics suggests that globalizing capitalism is neither natural nor inevitable.1,2,3<br /><br /><br />The critical stage in the development of market capitalism occurred during the industrial revolution (1750 1850 in England), when new technologies led to the "liberation" of a critical mass of land, labor, and capital. They became understood in a new way for commodities to be bought and sold. The world had to be converted into exchangeable "resources" for market forces to interact freely and productively. But it was strongly resisted by most people at the time and was later successfully implemented only because of strong government support for it. For those who had capital to invest, the industrial revolution was very profitable. But for most people industrial commoditization seems to have been experienced as a tragedy. The earth became commoditized into a collection of resources to be exploited. Human life became commoditized into labor or work time and was also priced according to supply and demand. All these became means which the new economy used to generate more capital.3,4<br /><br /><br />From a religious perspective, when things become treated as commodities they lose their spiritual dimension. The commoditized understanding induces a sharp duality between humans and the rest of the world. All value is created by our goals and desires. The rest of the world has no meaning or value except when it serves our purposes. This now seems quite natural to us, because we have been conditioned to think and live this way. For Buddhism, however, such a dualistic understanding is delusive. The world is a web; nothing has any reality of its own apart from that web, because everything is dependent on everything else. The concept of interdependence challenges our usual sense of separation from the world. The feeling that ‘I am here and the world is out there’, is at the root of our Dukkha and it alienates us from the world where we live. This non-dual interdependence of things was experienced by the Buddha when he became enlightened. The Buddhist path works by helping us to realize our interdependence and non-duality with the world and to live in harmony with it.5,6,7,8<br /><br /><br /><br /> <br />Conclusion <br />Buddhism shows us the possibility of a better way of leading a stress-free life. However, from a materialistic perspective and the "social science" of economics, such philosophical and spiritual understanding of life are considered as superstitious and escapist.5,6,8 <br /><br />The teachings of the Buddha are based on a different way of understanding the relationship between ourselves and the world. From the Buddhist perspective, economic growth and consumerism are unsatisfactory alternatives because they evade the basic problem of life, which is suffering, by distracting us with symbolic substitutes such as money, status and power.<br /><br /><br /><br /> <br />References<br /><br />1. Quang, T.T. 2009. Buddhism and Globalization. Bliss and Growth. Blag Biz. <br />2. Loy, D. 2007. A Buddhist View of Globalization. Buddhist Peace Fellowship. Japan: Bunkyo University. <br />3. Power, G. 1997. Globalization and its Discontents in Development. The Journal of the Society for International Development 40(2). <br />4. Schumacher, E.F. 1975. Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered. New York: Harper. <br />5. Payutto, P.A. 1994. Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place. (translated by Dhammavijaya and Bruce Evans) Second Edition. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation.<br />6. Sizemore, R.F., Swearer, D.K., ed. 1990. Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina.<br />7. David R. Loy, "The Religion of the Market" in Visions of a New Earth: Religious Perspectives on Population, Consumption and Ecology, edited by Harold Coward and Dan Maguire (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1999.<br />8. Hodge, H.N. 2009. Buddhism in the Global Economy. Berkeley, US: ISEC.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-12022888853807622552010-01-09T17:44:00.001-08:002010-01-09T17:44:34.298-08:00APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBALIZATIONAPPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBALIZATION<br /> <br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br /><br />The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong &<br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br /><br /><br /><br />Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,<br />SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,<br /> KOLKATA – 700 091<br />WEST BENGAL, INDIA<br />Tel: +91-33-23215586<br />Mobile: +919434485543<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br /><br /> <br />APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBALIZATION<br /><br />Abstract<br /><br /><br />Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also to lead to a more democratic society. <br /><br /><br />Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.<br /><br />Key words: Buddha, Globalization, Buddhism, Applied.<br /> <br />APPLIED BUDDHISM AND GLOBALIZATION<br /><br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />The issue of globalization is directly or indirectly affecting all our lives. Globalization leads to the globalization of economy and the homogenization of culture. It can undermine local cultures and disrupt traditional relationships in a society with the assumption that free trade will also lead to the formation of a more democratic society. Unfortunately, the effects of the globalization of business and trade are often disastrous for underdeveloped nations. These nations provide the raw materials and cheap labor which are necessary to make globalization prosperous for the more developed nations. Though there are successes in the process of globalization, there is much unrest in the poor and underdeveloped nations which are deep in debt and suffer internal conflict, poverty, droughts and famines.1,2<br /><br /><br />The concept of globalization is important for Buddhism because Buddhism is a global, world faith. Buddhism in modern times had already incorporated either other genuine Asian traditions or Western traditions and merged with the socio-cultural backgrounds of many countries across the world. Buddhism stresses the principle of interdependence which is also the foundation of globalization in economic interest.1,2<br /> <br />A Buddhist Perception of Globalization<br />The Buddha emphasized that we all have both unwholesome and unwholesome traits (kusala / akusalamula). The important issue is the practical matter of how to reduce our unwholesome characteristics and develop the more wholesome ones. This process is symbolized by the lotus flower. Although rooted in the mud and muck at the bottom of a pond, the lotus grows upwards to bloom on the surface, thus representing our potential to purify ourselves.5 Our unwholesome characteristics are usually summarized as the "three poisons" or three roots of evil: lobha - greed, dosa - anger and moha - delusion. The goal of the Buddhist way of life is to eliminate these roots by transforming them into their positive counterparts: greed into generosity (Dāna), anger into loving-kindness (metta), and delusion into wisdom (prajna).3,4 <br /><br /><br />Globalization is the latest expression of a long-standing strategy of development based on economic growth and liberalization of trade and finance. This results in the progressive integration of economies of nations across the world through the unrestricted flow of global trade and investment. The mainstream approach is generally rooted in the underlying assumption that globalization brings jobs, technology, income and wealth to societies. In order to make this strategy of globalization successful, all the societies must be willing to submit to the principles of the free market—limiting public spending, privatizing public services, removing barriers to foreign investment, strengthening export production and controlling inflation. However, this is very difficult task to achieve within a short span of time. As a result, most often, globalized production has led to a litany of social and ecological crises: poverty and powerlessness of the majority of people, destruction of community, depletion of natural resources and unendurable pollution.1,2,3<br /><br /><br />Our obsession with economic growth seems natural to us because we have forgotten the hierarchy of "needs" that we often take for granted. We project our own values when we assume that a person must be unhappy by presuming that the only way to become happy is to start on the treadmill of a lifestyle increasingly preoccupied with consumption. However, the importance of self-limitation, which requires some degree of non-attachment, is an essential human attribute to remain happy according to Buddhism. This is expressed better in a Tibetan Buddhist analogy. The world is full of thorns and sharp stones (and now broken glass too). What should we do about this? One solution is to pave over the entire earth, but a simpler alternative is to wear shoes. "Paving the whole planet" is a good metaphor for how our collective technological and economic project is attempting to make us happy. Without the wisdom of self-limitation, we will not be satisfied even when we have used up all the earth's resources. The other solution is for our minds to learn how to "wear shoes," so that our collective ends become an expression of the renewable means that the biosphere provides.3,4,5<br /><br /><br />From a religious perspective, when things become treated as commodities they lose their spiritual dimension. The commoditized understanding induces a sharp duality between humans and the rest of the world. All value is created by our goals and desires. The rest of the world has no meaning or value except when it serves our purposes. This now seems quite natural to us, because we have been conditioned to think and live this way. For Buddhism, however, such a dualistic understanding is delusive. The world is a web; nothing has any reality of its own apart from that web, because everything is dependent on everything else. The concept of interdependence challenges our usual sense of separation from the world. The feeling that ‘I am here and the world is out there’, is at the root of our Dukkha and it alienates us from the world where we live. This non-dual interdependence of things was experienced by the Buddha when he became enlightened. The Buddhist path works by helping us to realize our interdependence and non-duality with the world and to live in harmony with it.3,4,5,6<br /><br /><br /><br />Conclusion <br />Modern Buddhism has become an intrinsic part of a globalized world. With its philosophy of the way of life, it takes special place in human and cultural identity. Some scholars recommend ‘Post-Buddhism’ as a proper term for the new infusion of ideas and practices in an increasingly globalized world. However, modern Buddhism has showed its potential to transcend the crucial problems of modernity. <br /><br /> <br /> References<br /><br />1. Quang, T.T. 2009. Buddhism and Globalization. Bliss and Growth. Blag Biz. <br />2. Loy, D. 2007. A Buddhist View of Globalization. Buddhist Peace Fellowship. Japan: Bunkyo University. <br />3. Payutto, P.A. 1994. Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place. (translated by Dhammavijaya and Bruce Evans) Second Edition. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation.<br />4. Sizemore, R.F., Swearer, D.K., ed. 1990. Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina.<br />5. Hodge, H.N. 2009. Buddhism in the Global Economy. Berkeley, US: ISEC. <br />6. David R. Loy, "The Religion of the Market" in Visions of a New Earth: Religious Perspectives on Population, Consumption and Ecology, edited by Harold Coward and Dan Maguire (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1999.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-50158173887477166972009-10-29T11:20:00.000-07:002009-10-29T11:21:26.933-07:00MODERN HINDUISM IS A RESTATEMENT OF BUDDHISMMODERN HINDUISM IS A RESTATEMENT OF BUDDHISM<br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br /><br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /><br /><br />Communication Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,<br />Salt Lake City, Sector-2,<br />Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br />Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)<br /> <br />MODERN HINDUISM IS A RESTATEMENT OF BUDDHISM<br /><br /><br />Abstract<br /><br /><br />Due to the striking similarities in the teachings of Buddhism and modern Hinduism, a group of modern scholars still believe that Buddhism is a restatement of Hinduism. But this notion is absolutely false as Hinduism is a much later development after the disappearance of Buddhism from India.<br /><br />There is enough historical evidence that Buddhism paved the way for refining the teachings of Hinduism. The finer aspects of Buddhism were later incorporated into the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads by Adi Shankaryacharya during the revival of Hinduism in 8th century A.D. As a result of this, we do not find any major difference between the teachings of Buddhism and Hinduism in modern era. Thus, modern Hinduism is actually a restatement of Buddhism.<br /><br /><br />Key words: Buddhism, Restatement, Modern, Brahmanism, Hinduism.<br /> <br />MODERN HINDUISM IS A RESTATEMENT OF BUDDHISM<br /><br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />Conflicts of opinions prevail while exploring the parallel teachings of Buddhism and modern Hinduism. Some scholars cherish the opinion that Buddhism in India subsequently got incorporated into the Hinduism. They believe that modern Hinduism in India is a new form of ancient Buddhism.1,2,3 <br /><br />Due to the striking similarities in the teachings of Buddhism and modern Hinduism, there is another group of scholars who uphold the theory that Buddhism is a restatement of Hinduism.1,2,4 But this notion is absolutely false as Hinduism is a much later development after the disappearance of Buddhism from India. If someone has to relate any ancient religion in India with Buddhism, it should be the existing Brahmanism which paved way to the introduction of Buddhism in India by Sakyamuni Buddha during the 6th century B.C., who was a historical personality. <br /><br /><br /> <br />Buddhism was a Critical Response to the Existing Brahmanism<br />Buddhism should be viewed as a critical response to the existing Brahmanism. Buddhism came into existence in order to wipe off the existing four-tier caste system in India laid down by the Aryans. As the status of women was remarkably subdued and deplorable during the period of Brahmanism, Buddhism came to the rescue by upholding the women’s rights and focused on empowerment of women in the society. Sakyamuni Buddha was the first historical personality who rose against all odds to abolish discrimination and violence against women in the existing Indian society.1,2,5<br /><br /><br />The Revival of Hinduism<br />The Vedic revival during the 8th century A.D. was referred to as the revival of Hinduism by the Western Scholars. This was initiated by Adi Shankaracharya in the Gangetic plains of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The Hindus of Rajasthan also participated in this hostile revival activity. After the death of Harshavardhana, the Rajputs were arising on horizons of North India. The Rajputs belonged to the lineage from among the remnants of Hunas and other foreign hordes which were broken down by the activities of kings like Baladitya and the local tibals. The Rajputs were made prominent by the Brahmins for the specific purpose of suppressing Buddhism by use of force. They subsequently dominated the later part of the history of India and played a key role in the revival of Hinduism.1,2,3,5<br />During this time, the popular devotion to the Buddha was sought to be replaced by devotion to Hindu gods such as Rama and Krishna. The existing version of the Mahabharata was written in this period when the decline of Buddhism had already begun. It was specially meant for the lower caste community (Shudras), most of whom were Buddhists, in order to attract them away from Buddhism. However, Brahmanism still prevented the Shudras from having access to the Vedas. The Mahabharata was possibly rewritten to placate the Buddhist Shudras and to compensate them for this discrimination. The Mahabharata incorporated some of the humanistic elements of Buddhism to win over the Shudras. Overall, it played the role of bolstering the Brahminical hegemony. Thus, Krishna, in the Gita, was made to say that a person should not violate the divinely ordained law of caste. Eklavya was made to slice off his thumb by Drona, who found it a gross violation of dharma that a mere tribal boy should excel the Kshatriya Arjun in archery.6,7<br /><br />The various writers of the puranas carried out this systematic campaign of hatred, slander and calumny against the Buddhists. The Brahannardiya Purana made it a principal sin for Brahmins to enter the house of a Buddhist even at times of great peril. The Vishnu Purana alleged that the Buddha as Maha Moha or the great seducer. It further cautioned against the sin of conversing with Buddhists and lays. Those who merely talked to Buddhist ascetics should be sent to hell. In the Gaya Mahatmaya, the concluding section of the Vayu Purana, the town of Gaya was identified as Gaya Asura, a demon who had attained such holiness that all those who saw him or touched him went straight to heaven. Clearly, this demon was related to none other than the Buddha who preached a simple way for all, including the oppressed castes, to attain salvation.7 <br /><br />The Vayu Purana story went on to add that Yama, the king of hell, grew jealous. This was possibly because less people were now entering his domains. He appealed to the gods to limit the powers of Asura Gaya. The gods, led by Vishnu, were able to restrict his powers by placing a massive stone on the demon’s head. This monstrous legend signified the ultimate capture of Buddhism’s most holy centre by its inveterate foes.7<br /><br />Kushinagar, also known as Harramba, was one of the most important Buddhist centres as the Buddha breathed his last there. The Brahmins, envious of the prosperity of this pilgrim town, invented an absurd theory in order to discourage people from going there. They spread a rumor that if one died in Harramba, he would go to hell. However, if one died in Kashi, the citadel of Brahmanism, he would go straight to the heaven. This belief got deeply rooted in the minds of the local community. So, when the Sufi saint Kabir died in 1518 AD at Maghar, not far from Kushinagar, some of his Hindu followers refused to erect any memorial in his honor there and instead set it up at Kashi. However, Kabir's Muslim followers were less superstitious and they set up a tomb for him at Maghar itself.6,7<br /><br /><br />The Tendency of Hinduism to Absorb its Rival Faiths<br />The tendency of Hinduism to absorb rival faiths was evident from the fact that many elements from other faiths had also gone into the making of Hinduism. While some scholars focus on outright persecution, others speak of a long process during which Buddhist practices became absorbed into Hinduism. Though the doctrine of ‘ahimsa’ or non-violence had originated with the Buddha and had certainly found its greatest exposition in the Buddha’s teachings, but by the second half of the 1st millennium A.D. it had become an integral part of the Hindu teachings. However, it is still not certain whether the Buddha was absorbed into the Hindu pantheon as a gesture of compromise or as an attempt of divide in order to reduce the overwhelming might of Buddhism or whether Hinduism was eager to embrace as its own, certain values that Buddhism stood for against the short-comings of Brahmanism.1,2,3,5,6 <br /><br />The simplicity of the Buddha’s message in emphasizing its stress on equality and crusade against the bloody and costly sacrifices and ritualism of Brahmanism had attracted the oppressed casts in large numbers. The Brahminical revivalists understood the need to appropriate some of these finer aspects of Buddhism and discarded some of the worst of their own practices so as to be able to win over the masses back to the Brahminical fold. Imitating the Buddhists in this regard, the Brahmins, who were once voracious beef-eaters, had turned into vegetarians.7<br /><br /><br />Adi Shankaracharya Had Preserved Buddhism by Incorporating It into Hinduism<br />The great Brahmin philosopher, Adi Shankaracharya (c. 788-820 AD), took keen interest in learning the inner aspects of Buddhist philosophy. He was alleged by some scholars to have hated Buddhism and engaged the Buddhist monks in public debates and each time he had emerged triumphant. But this theory was far from truth for the simple reason that, had he successfully defeated the Buddhist monks in debates all the time and had no faith in Buddhism, then there was no logic behind his undertaking the initiative to incorporate the finer aspects of Buddhist teachings into Hinduism. So, by the time he had invited the Buddhist monks in public debates, he had already studied Buddhism and developed an immense respect for the teachings of the Buddha. 1,2,3,5 <br /><br />He had also realized that all the Buddhist monks with whom he had debated were not well-versed with the teachings of the Buddha. Due to their ignorance, they were unable to preach the true meaning of the doctrine of the Buddha in an effective manner. So, he took the initiative to include the finer aspects of Buddhism into the core teachings of Hinduism. Under his supervision, the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and Puranas were rewritten incorporating these new aspects. The Buddha was also transformed into an avatara (descent) of Vishnu. 1,2,3,5<br /><br />The monastic practices had been unknown in Brahmanism, but this practice was also initiated under the leadership of Adi Shankaracharya. He had established ‘maths’ or monasteries at Badrinath in the north, Dwarka in the west, Sringeri in the south, and Puri in the east.1,2,3 <br /><br /><br />Modern Hinduism is a Restatement of Buddhism<br />The finer aspects of Buddhism were later incorporated into the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads by Adi Shankaryacharya during the revival of Hinduism in 8th century A.D. As a result of this, we do not find any major difference between the teachings of Buddhism and Hinduism in modern era. Lay people and many scholars often get deceived by ignoring the chronological order of historical development of Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism and they are unable to make any distinction between these. We should understand that Hinduism was a later development after Buddhism. There is enough historical evidence that Buddhism paved the way for refining the teachings of Hinduism which came into existence after the disappearance of Buddhism from India. We must always remember that the finer aspects of Buddhism had been later incorporated into Hinduism under the supervision of Adi Shankaracharya during the 8th century A.D. 1,2,3 <br /><br />So, by observing the strikingly similar teachings in both these religions, it would be wiser to conclude that modern Hinduism is a restatement of ancient Buddhism. The reverse of this statement is never true on historical perspectives, as an earlier religion cannot predict or copy the teachings of a future religion.1,2,3<br /><br /><br /> <br />Conclusions<br />The Brahmins could never deny or disrespect the inner truths in the teachings of the Buddha in spite of having hatred against Buddhism as a religion. So, the subsequent absorption of the Buddha into Vishnu’s pantheon represented some sort of a compromise between the Brahmins and the Buddhists on moral and philosophical grounds. Buddhism stood for to promote peace and harmony in the society. This had been later incorporated into certain strands of modern Hinduism in order to make it more refined and acceptable to the society. Thus, the Buddha was finally given his just dues. From historical perspective, it is now clearly evident that Buddhism was never conquered on moral grounds and critical arguments, but was actually driven off by sheer force and might.1,2,3,5,6 <br /><br />Though the Buddha is now incorporated into modern Hinduism as Lord Vishnu’s pantheon, but he should not be regarded as a god of the Hindu religion. It needs to be emphasized once again that the Buddha was never a mythological figure as Lord Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma or Rama, but he was a real historical personality who devoted his entire life to eliminate the sufferings of all sentient beings.4 <br /><br /> <br />References<br />1. Lal, V. 2004. Buddhism’s Disappearance from India [serial online]. [cited 2009 August 26]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL: <br />http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Religions/paths/BuddhismDisappear.doc.<br /><br />2. Jaini, P.S., Narain A.K., ed., 1980. The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Survival of Jainism: A Study in Contrast. Studies in History of Buddhism. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Company:181-91.<br /><br />3. Ahir, D.C. 2005. Buddhism Declined in India: How and Why? Delhi: B.R. Publishing.<br /><br />4. Kantowsky, D. 2003. Buddhists in India Today: Descriptions, Pictures and Documents. Delhi: Manohar Publications: 156. <br /><br />5. Goyal, S.R. 1987. A History of Indian Buddhism. Meerut: 394.<br /><br />6. Beal, S. 1884. Si-Yu Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World. London: Trubner & Co., reprint ed., Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.<br /><br />7. Pakistan Defence. 2008. Disappearance of Buddhism from "Non Violent India": An Untold Story. Daily Muslims. [serial online]. [cited 2009 October 8]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.defence.pk/forums/current-events-social-issues/9222-disappearance-buddhism-non-violent-india-untold-story.htmlankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-9817464564926574702009-10-27T11:25:00.002-07:002009-10-27T11:26:30.781-07:00THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ ) IN MODERN MATHEMATICSTHE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ )<br />IN MODERN MATHEMATICS<br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, N. TESTERMAN, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen<br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /><br /><br />Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,<br />SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,<br /> KOLKATA – 700 091<br />WEST BENGAL, INDIA<br />Tel: +91-33-23215586<br />Mobile: +919434485543<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br /> <br />THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ )<br />IN MODERN MATHEMATICS<br /><br />Abstract<br /><br />The concept of ‘zero’ or ‘sunyam’ originated in ancient India. It was derived from the concept of ‘void’ or ‘śūnyatā ’ propagated by Nāgārjuna through his Doctrine of Emptiness or ‘śūnyatā ’. The inclusion of ‘zero’ in mathematics paved way for development of the decimal system for financial transactions. <br /><br />The Decimal System of numerals is known as Indo-Arabic numerals even today. But it is actually a misnomer. The concept of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ first evolved in India and was later adopted by the Arabs. The archeological evidence of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ were already found on the Rock Edits of Ashoka (256 B.C.) which was curved several centuries earlier than Arab invasion.<br /><br />Though the concept of ‘zero’ appeared in the Indian history much earlier, but Nāgārjuna gave a new dimension of ‘nullity’ or ‘emptiness’ to the notion of ‘zero’ and made it more meaningful with regard to our philosophical understandings. <br /><br />Key words: Emptiness, Mathematics, Zero, Nullity, Void, Nāgārjuna, Śūnyatā.<br /> <br />THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ )<br />IN MODERN MATHEMATICS<br /><br />Introduction<br />The concept of ‘zero’ or ‘sunyam’ originated in ancient India. It was derived from the concept of ‘void’ or ‘śūnyatā ’ propagated by Nāgārjuna through his Doctrine of Emptiness or ‘śūnyatā ’.1 However, the concept of ‘void’ existed in Hindu Philosophy before Nāgārjuna. There also existed the derivation of a symbol for it. The early Vedic concept of ‘śūnyatā ’or ‘void’ was later refined by Nāgārjuna who had imparted an intensive philosophical meaning to it.1 Nāgārjuna’s doctrine of ‘śūnyatā’ provided the foundation for Mahāyāna and Vajrāyāna (Tantrāyāna) forms of Buddhism. This Doctrine of Emptiness had deep rooted origin in the Buddha’s Doctrine of Dependent Origination or Impermanence. The concept of ‘śūnyatā’ was influenced by South-east Asian culture through the Buddhist concept of ‘Nibbana’ which means 'attaining salvation by merging into the void of eternity'.2,3 <br /><br />A concept and symbol that connotes nullity represents a qualitative advancement of the human capacity of abstraction. In absence of a concept of ‘zero’ there could have been only positive numerals in computation, the inclusion of ‘zero’ in mathematics opened up a new dimension of negative numerals and gave a cut-off point and a standard in the measurability of qualities whose extremes are still unknown to human beings, such as temperature. Though the exact age of origin of ‘zero’ in Indian mathematics is still unknown, but the archeological evidence of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ during the Buddhist period were found on the Rock Edits of Ashoka (256 B.C.).4,5,6<br /><br />The Buddhist Concept of ‘Śūnyatā’ or ‘Emptiness’<br />In early Buddhism, the term ‘suññatā’ or ‘śūnyatā’ is used primarily in connection with the ‘no-self’ (anatman) doctrine to denote that the Five Aggregates (skandhas) are ‘empty’ of the permanent self or soul which is erroneously imputed to them.1 The doctrine of emptiness, however, received its fullest elaboration by Nāgārjuna, who wielded it skillfully to destroy the substantiality conceptions of the Abhidharma schools of the Theravāda. Since there cannot be anything that is not the Buddha-nature (buddhatā), all that appears is in truth devoid of characteristics. The doctrine of emptiness is the central tenet of the Mādhyamaka School. A statement of Nāgārjuna's views in support of it may be found in his Mūla-Mādhyamaka-Nārikā.2,3,7<br /><br />Nāgārjuna is regarded as the founder of the Mādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy which he had established during the 2nd-3rd Century A.D. The ‘Mulamadhyamaka-Karika’ ("Fundamentals of the Middle Way") is his major work. It was originally composed in Sanskrit. The Sanskrit as well as early Tibetan versions of the work had survived without significant damage over the ages along with the later Chinese translations. Several complete English translations of the ‘Karika’ are available in recent times.2,3,7,8 <br /><br /><br />Evolution of the Concept of ‘Zero’ in Modern Mathematics<br />In mathematics the notion of emptiness finds expression in the number ‘zero’, as well as in contemporary set theory. The concept of ‘zero’ was discovered in India prior to the third century A.D. The "Arabic" number system we use today is neither Arabic nor Greek in origin. In fact, the digits 0123456789 go back to India where they were first created. The ancient Indian number system distinguished itself from other positional systems by virtue of allowing the use of ‘zero’ as a legitimate number. The number ‘zero’ did not exist in Greek mathematics, because the Greeks were essentially geometricians and had no use for the mathematical concept of a non-entity. The concept of ‘zero’ also did not exist in Egyptian mathematics. The Arabs, who encountered the Indian number system during their early conquests in India, found it superior to their own traditional system which used alphabets, and had adapted it to develop Islamic mathematics. The Arabic word for ‘zero’ is "sifr", meaning "empty." In the 12th century, the Italian mathematician Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci studied Arabian algebra and introduced the Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europe. The word "sifr" got transformed into "zephirum" in Latin and subsequently, ‘zero’ in English.1,5<br /><br />During the first three centuries A.D., the ancient Indians were already using a decimal positional system on a wide scale. In this system, the numerals in different positions represent different numbers and here, one of the ten symbols used was a fully functional ‘zero’. They called it 'Sunyam'. The word and its meaning ‘void’ were obviously borrowed from its use in philosophical literature. Eventually, the Decimal System of calculation evolved from this, which laid the foundation for all the modern arithmetic, mathematics and statistics. 1,4,5,6<br /><br /><br />The Babylonian System of Numerals<br />In all early civilizations, the first expression of mathematical understanding appears in the form of counting systems. Numbers in very early societies were typically represented by groups of lines, though later different numbers came to be assigned specific numeral names and symbols (as in India) or were designated by alphabetic letters (such as in Rome). Although today, we take our decimal system for granted, not all ancient civilizations based their numbers on a ten-base system. In ancient Babylon, a hexagesimal (base 60) system was in use. Though the Babylonians used a special symbol for ‘zero’ as early as the 3rd century B.C., they used it only as a place holder and did not have the concept of ‘zero’ as an actual value.1,5<br /><br />Compared to the Indian system of mathematical calculations, the Babylonian numeration had only three figures, one for 1, one for 10, and one for 100, so that a number, say, 999, would require 27 symbols, namely, nine of each of the symbols. But it is not certain when exactly the invention of this most modest of all numerals took place. The first time it reached Europe was during the Moorish invasion of Spain around 700 A.D. Later, when massive Latin translations of books from Baghdad took place around the close of the first millennium A.D., the concept was found in an arithmetic book dated 820 A.D., by Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khouarizmi , who explained the whole Decimal System in great detail. It was actually the Indian system that explained as the Arabs themselves had no number system of their own.1,5<br /><br />The Maya civilization of South America also had a ‘zero’ in the first century A.D., but they did not use it in a fixed base system. The Greeks were hampered by their use of letters for the numbers. Before ‘zero’ was invented, the art of reckoning remained an exclusive and highly skilled profession. It was difficult to distinguish, say, 27, 207, 270, 2007, because the latter three were all written 2 7, with a ‘space’ in between. The positional system is not possible in the Roman numeral system which had no expression or symbol for ‘zero’. A number, say, 101,000, would have to be written only by 101 consecutive M’s. The Egyptians had no ‘zero’ and never reached the idea of expressing all numbers with ten digits.1,5 <br /> <br />The Evolution of Indian Numeral System <br />Although the Chinese were also using a decimal based counting system in ancient times, they lacked a formal notational system that had the abstraction and elegance of the Indian notational system. It was the Indian notational system that reached the Western world through the Arabs and has now been accepted as universal. Several factors contributed to this development whose significance is perhaps best stated by French mathematician, Laplace: "The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions." 1,4,6<br /><br />(a) The Decimal System in Harappa <br />The mathematical environment among the Indians was congenial for the invention of ‘zero’ and for its use as the null-value in all facets of calculation. In India a decimal system was already in place during the Harappan period, as indicated by an analysis of Harappan weights and measures. Weights corresponding to ratios of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 have been identified, as have scales with decimal divisions. A particularly notable characteristic of Harappan weights and measures is their remarkable accuracy. A bronze rod marked in units of 0.367 inches points to the degree of precision demanded in those times. Such scales were particularly important in ensuring proper implementation of town planning rules that required roads of fixed widths to run at right angles to each other, for drains to be constructed of precise measurements, and for homes to be constructed according to specified guidelines. The existence of a gradated system of accurately marked weights points to the development of trade and commerce in Harappan society.4,6,9<br />(b) Mathematical Activity in the Vedic Period <br />In the Vedic period, records of mathematical activity are mostly to be found in Vedic texts associated with ritual activities. However, as in many other early agricultural civilizations, the study of arithmetic and geometry was also impelled by secular considerations. Thus, to some extent early mathematical developments in India mirrored the developments in Egypt, Babylon and China. The system of land grants and agricultural tax assessments required accurate measurement of cultivated areas. As land was redistributed or consolidated, problems of mensuration came up that required solutions. This meant that an understanding of geometry and arithmetic was virtually essential for revenue administrators. Mathematics was thus brought into the service of both the secular and the ritual domains.4,6,9<br /><br />Arithmetic operations (Ganit) such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, fractions, squares, cubes and roots are enumerated in the Narad Vishnu Purana attributed to Ved Vyas (pre-1000 BC). Examples of geometric knowledge (rekha-ganit) are to be found in the Sulva-Sutras of Baudhayana (800 BC) and Apasthmaba (600 BC) which describe techniques for the construction of ritual altars in use during the Vedic era. It is likely that these texts tapped geometric knowledge that may have been acquired much earlier, possibly in the Harappan period. Baudhayana's Sutra displays an understanding of basic geometric shapes and techniques of converting one geometric shape (such as a rectangle) to another of equivalent (or multiple, or fractional) area (such as a square). While some of the formulations are approximations, others are accurate and reveal a certain degree of practical ingenuity as well as some theoretical understanding of basic geometric principles. Modern methods of multiplication and addition probably emerged from the techniques described in the Sulva-Sutras.4,6,9,10<br /><br />A notation for powers of 10 up to the power 17 was already in use even from Vedic times. Single words had been used to denote the powers of the number 10. The numbers one, ten, hundred, thousand, ten thousand, … were given by the sequence of words in the list: eka, dasa, śata, sahasra, ayuta, laksha, prayuta, koţi, arbuda, abja, kharva, nikharva, mahā-padma, śankha, jaladhi, antya, mahāśankha, parārdha. Thus, the Decimal System was in Indian culture even in the early part of the first millennium B.C. The Yajurveda, in its description of rituals and the mantras employed therein, the Mahabharata and the Ramayanā in their descriptions of statistics and measurements used all these words with total abandon. However, distinct symbols for the numbers 1 to 9 already existed in the Indian system of calculations and the counting system used the base 10 in all its secular, religious and ritual activities. These two factors were unique to Indian culture and contributed most to the thought process that led to the decimal place value notation as well as ’zero’ having a value.1,4,6,9<br /><br /><br />(c) Brahminical Philosophy and Mathematics <br />Indian philosophical doctrines also had a profound influence on the development of mathematical concepts and formulations. In the Upanishadic world view of Brahmanism, space and time were considered limitless. This led to a deep interest in developing very large numbers and evolution of the definitions of infinite numbers. Infinite numbers were created through recursive formulae, as in the Anuyoga Dwara Sutra.4,6,10 <br /><br /><br /> <br />(d) Philosophy of Jainism and Mathematics <br />Like the Upanishadic world view, the Jain cosmology also regarded space and time as limitless. Jain mathematicians recognized five different types of infinities that included, infinite in one direction, in two directions, in area, infinite everywhere and perpetually infinite. Since Jain epistemology allowed for a degree of indeterminacy in describing reality, it probably helped in grappling with indeterminate equations and finding numerical approximations to irrational numbers. Permutations and combinations are listed in the Bhagvati Sutras (3rd C BC) and Sathananga Sutra (2nd C BC). In Satkhandagama, various sets are operated upon by logarithmic functions to base two, by squaring and extracting square roots, and by rising to finite or infinite powers. The operations are repeated to produce new sets. In other works the relation of the number of combinations to the coefficients occurring in the binomial expansion is noted.4,6,9,10 <br /><br /><br />(d) Buddhist Philosophy and Mathematics <br />Buddhist literature also demonstrates an awareness of indeterminate and infinite numbers. Buddhist mathematics was classified either as Garna (Simple Mathematics) or Sankhyan (Higher Mathematics). Numbers were deemed to be of three types: Sankheya (countable), Asankheya (uncountable) and Anant (infinite). Nāgārjuna’s Doctrine of Emptiness or Śūnyatā had paved the way for the development of the concept of ‘nullity’ and ‘infinity’ in modern mathematics.4,6,10<br /><br /><br /> <br />(e) Contribution of Brahmagupta to Modern Mathematics 1,4,5,6,9,10<br />Philosophical formulations concerning Shunya - i.e. emptiness or the void may have facilitated in the introduction of the concept of ‘zero’. While the ‘zero’ (bindu) as an empty place holder in the place-value numeral system appears much earlier, algebraic definitions of the ‘zero’ and its relationship to mathematical functions appear in the mathematical treatises of Brahmagupta in the 7th C AD. Although scholars are divided about how early the symbol for ‘zero’ came to be used in numeric notation in India, (Ifrah arguing that the use of ‘zero’ is already implied in Aryabhatta) tangible evidence for the use of the ‘zero’ begins to proliferate towards the end of the Gupta period. Between the 7th C and the 11th C, Indian numerals developed into their modern form, and along with the symbols denoting various mathematical functions (such as plus, minus, square root etc) eventually became the foundation stones of modern mathematical notation.<br /><br />Counting boards with columns representing units and tens were in use from very ancient times in India. The numberless content of an empty column in course of time was symbolized to be ‘nothing’. The thriving activity in astrology, astronomy, navigation and business during the first few centuries A.D. in India also looked forward for a superior numerical system that lent itself to complicated calculations. <br /><br />The ancient India astronomer Brahmagupta is credited with having put forth the concept of ‘zero’ for the first time. Brahmagupta is said to have been born the year 598 A.D. at Bhillamala (today's Bhinmal ) in Gujarat, Western India. His name as a mathematician was well established when King Vyaghramukha of the Chapa dynasty made him the court astronomer. Among his two treatises, Brahma-sputa siddhanta and Karanakhandakhadyaka, first one is more famous. It was a corrected version of the old Astronomical text, Brahma siddhanta. It was in his Brahma-sphu siddhanta, for the first time ever that he had formulated the rules of the operation ‘zero’, foreshadowing the Decimal System numeration. With the integration of ‘zero’ into the numerals, it became possible to note higher numerals with limited characters. Since, Nāgārjuna’s Doctrine of Emptiness or Śūnyatā was quite popular in Indian society during the time of Brahmagupta, there is a high probability that Brahmagupta was inspired by this Doctrine of Emptiness. Thus, the philosophical concept of ‘emptiness’ or ‘śūnyatā ’ or ‘void’ gave rise to the concept of ‘zero’ in Indian mathematics. Subsequently, this became the foundation for modern mathematics.<br /><br />Brilliant as it was, this invention was no accident. In the Western world, the cumbersome Roman numeral system posed as a major obstacle, and in China the pictorial script posed as a hindrance. But in India, almost everything was in place to favor such a development. There was already a long and established history in the use of decimal numbers, and philosophical and cosmological constructs encouraged a creative and expansive approach to number theory. Panini's studies in linguistic theory and formal language and the powerful role of symbolism and representational abstraction in art and architecture may have also provided an impetus, as might have the rationalist doctrines and the exacting epistemology of the Nyaya Sutras, and the innovative abstractions of the Syadavada and Buddhist schools of learning.<br /><br />In the earlier Roman and Babylonian systems of numeration, a large number of characters were required to denote higher numerals. Thus, enumeration and computation was a cumbersome process. According to the Roman system of numeration, the number thirty would have to be written as XXX. But as per the Decimal System it would 30. Similarly, as per the Roman system, the number thirty three would be written as XXXIII. But as per the Decimal System, it would be 33. Thus, it is clear how the introduction of the Decimal System made possible the writing of numerals having a high value with limited characters. This also made computation easier. <br /><br />Apart from developing the Decimal System based on the incorporation of ‘zero’ in enumeration, Brahmagupta also arrived at solutions for indeterminate equations of 1 type ax2+1=y2 and thus can be called the founder of higher branch of mathematics called numerical analysis. Brahmagupta's treatise Brahma-sputa-siddhanta was translated into Arabic under the title Sind Hind. For several centuries this translation remained a standard text of reference in the Arab world. It was from this translation of an Indian text on Mathematics that the Arab mathematicians perfected the Decimal System and gave the world its current system of enumeration which we call the Arab numerals, which are originally Indian numerals.<br /><br /><br />‘Zero’ and the Place-Value Notation<br />The number ‘zero’ is the subtle gift of the Indians of antiquity to mankind. The concept itself was one of the most significant inventions in the ascent of Man for the growth of culture and civilization. It must be credited with the enormous usefulness of its counterpart, the place value system of expressing all numbers with just ten symbols. The concept of ‘zero’ had revolutionarized our way of thinking and helped the mankind to simplify all computations during the last two millennia. The binary system also evolved from this ‘zero’ concept and it became the foundation for communicating with computers.1,5,8 <br /><br />In spite of the ‘zero’ being so crucial to our day to day calculations and living, it took centuries for the western world to appreciate and incorporate this most valuable numeral, ‘zero’, in their recording of accounts or in scholarly writings. By the time ‘zero’ reached the West, the Dark Ages of the western world had begun. However, there are traces of its knowledge in Spain in the tenth century A.D. But the final breakthrough of the introduction to the West was by Leonardo of Pisa, through his popular text Liber Abaci, 1202 A.D., the first European book (in French) that used the ‘zero’ appeared in 1275.1,5,8 <br /><br /><br />Application of the Concept of Emptiness in Modern Mathematics<br />In ancient India the numeral of ‘void’ or ‘sunyam’ was used in computation. It was indicated by a dot and was termed ‘Pujyam’. Even today we use this term for ‘zero’ along with the more current term ‘Sunyam’ meaning a blank. But the term ‘Pujyam’ also means holy. ‘Param-Pujya’ is a prefix used in written communication with elders where it means respected or esteemed. The reason why the term ‘Pujya’, meaning blank, came to be sanctified is still unknown.1,4,6,9<br /><br />Indian philosophy has glorified concepts like the material world being an illusion or ‘Maya’. The act of renouncing the material world is ‘Tyaga’ and the goal of merging into the void of eternity is ‘Nibbana’. The mathematical concept of ‘zero’ might have got a philosophical connotation of reverence from these.1,4,6,10<br /><br />It is possible that like the technique of algebra, the concept of ‘zero’ also reached the west through the Arabs. In ancient India the terms used to describe ‘zero’ included ‘Pujyam’, ‘Sunyam’, ‘Bindu’. The concept of a void or blank was termed as ‘Shukla’ and ‘Shubra’ which also means white or purity. The Arabs referred to the ‘zero’ as ‘Siphra’ or ‘Sifr’ from which we have the English terms Cipher or Cypher. In English the term Cipher connotes ‘zero’ or any Arabic numeral. Thus, it is evident that the term Cipher is derived from the Arabic ‘Sifr’ which in turn is quite close to the Sanskrit term ‘Shubra’.1,4,6,9 <br /><br />In the ancient Indian context, the number ‘zero’ did not originally refer to nothingness or nullity. The Sanskrit word for ‘zero’ is ‘sunyam’, which means "puffed up, hollow, empty." The ‘zero’ stands for emptiness suggestive of potentiality. The discovery of the mathematical ‘zero’ concurred with the emptiness of prajna-intuition in India around 200 BC. The concept of ‘zero’ evolved to signify polar opposition between being and nonbeing. ‘zero’ is that which contains all possible polarized pairs such as (+1, -1), (+2, -2), etc. It is the collection of all mutually cancelling pairs of forward and backward movements. Put it another way, ‘zero’ is fundamental to all existence. Because of it, everything is possible. ‘zero’ is the additive identity, the focal point of all numbers. The numbers cannot be created without the ‘zero’. Among the great civilizations of antiquity, India alone was able to fathom the depth of emptiness and willing to accept its importance in mathematics. Following the introduction of the Indian-Arabic numerals into Western culture, ‘zero’ became a number that was used in calculations like any other number. Consequently, it lost some part of its original meaning, namely the part that suggests potentiality. Today, most mathematicians do not associate the notion of emptiness with ‘zero’, but with the ‘Empty Set’ which is a construct of set theory. This notion of emptiness is also now associated with the ‘Null Hypothesis Testing’ in statistical methods which is the backbone of modern research. Thus, it is evident that Nāgārjuna’s doctrine of ‘śūnyatā’ provided the foundation for modern epidemiology and biostatistics.1,4,6,8,10<br /><br /><br />Emptiness and Null Set: The Evolution of Natural Numbers 1,4,6,9<br />A set is a collection of objects or numbers. For example, the set { 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 } is a set of numbers containing five elements; it is therefore said to have the "cardinality" of 5. The Null Set or Empty Set { } is a collection that contains nothing and has the cardinality 0. The mathematician John von Neumann (1923) invented a method, known as von Neumann hierarchy, which can be employed to generate the natural numbers from the empty set as follows:<br />Step 0: { } (empty set)<br />Step 1: { { } } (set containing the empty set)<br />Step 2: { { }, { { } } } (set containing previous two sets)<br />Step 3: { { }, { { } } , { { }, { { } } } } (set containing previous three sets)<br />Step 4: { { }, { { } } , { { }, { { } } }, { { }, { { } } , { { }, { { } } } } } (set containing previous four sets etc.)<br /><br />This sequence is obtained by iterating a function that creates a new set from the union of the preceding two sets, thus generating sets with the cardinalities 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ad infinitum. In less mathematical terms, the principle can be described as follows: Beginning with emptiness (step 0), we observe emptiness. Through the act of observing we create an entity containing emptiness (step 1). Now we perceive emptiness, as well as an entity. From the combination of the former two we create another entity by observation, which is different from the first entity (step 2). This process is repeated again and again. Interestingly, if we define suitable operations on the obtained sets based on union and intersection, the cardinalities of the resulting sets behave just like natural numbers being added and subtracted. The sequence is therefore isomorphic to the natural numbers - a stunningly beautiful example of something from nothing.<br /><br />Emptiness and Null Hypothesis 1,4,6,8,10<br />The concept of ‘nullity’ in the ‘Null Hypothesis’ is the backbone of modern scientific research and statistical methods. The acceptance or rejection of Null Hypothesis is the fundamental basis of our scientific understandings. At the Beginning of any research, the researchers need to take a neutral stand by assuming that a set of suspected correlates or determinants are neither related not non-related to the outcome variable that is examined in the study. This neutral position by the researchers is actually the application of emptiness in order to remain unbiased throughout the study. However, the Null Hypothesis states that there is no relationship between a correlate or determinant and an outcome. In case any relationship is observed, it is merely due to chance. So, the researchers need to analytically judge from the results of their research findings on whether to accept or reject the Null Hypothesis. Various probability oriented statistical models are applied to test this Null Hypothesis in every research in order to establish the actual truth by attaching logical and analytical judgment to the findings. All these efforts are directed towards minimizing the chance factor to establish the truth with accuracy in the light of our fundamental understandings and logical reasoning. Nāgārjuna’s doctrine of ‘śūnyatā’ provided the foundation for this insight in modern epidemiology and biostatistics.<br /><br /><br /><br /> <br />Conclusion<br />It is interesting to know how the ‘Sunyam’ of the Indians became the ‘zero’ of the modern world. The 'Sunya' of Sanskrit became the Arabic ‘sifr’ which means empty space. In Medieval Latin it manifested as ‘ciphra’, then in Middle English as ‘siphre’, in English as ‘cypher’ and in American as ‘cipher’. In the middle ages, the word ‘ciphra’ evolved to stand for the whole system. In the wake of this general meaning, the Latin ‘zephirum’ came to be used to denote the ‘Sunyam’. And that entered English finally as ‘zero’. In medieval Europe, some countries banned the positional number system, along with ‘zero’, brought by the Arabs whom they considered as heathens. So, they considered the ‘Sunyam’ to be a creation of the devil. As a result ‘ciphra’ came to mean a secret code. The term ‘deciphering’ later evolved from this which meant ‘resolution of a code’.1,4,5,6<br /><br />The Decimal System of numerals is known as Indo-Arabic numerals even today. But it is actually a misnomer. The concept of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ first evolved in India and was later adopted by the Arabs. The archeological evidence of ‘zero’ and ‘Decimal System of numerals’ were already found on the Rock Edits of Ashoka (256 B.C.) which was curved several centuries earlier than Arab invasion.1,4,5,6<br /><br />Though the concept of ‘zero’ appeared in the Indian history much earlier, but Nāgārjuna gave a new dimension of ‘nullity’ or ‘emptiness’ to the notion of ‘zero’ and made it more meaningful with regard to our philosophical understandings. The historical evidences imply that the Indian contribution of ‘zero’, which had eventually led to the evolution of the Decimal System of numbers, was a significant milestone in modern mathematics and had changed our way of thinking and understanding forever.<br /> <br />References<br /><br />1. Knierim, T. 2009. Emptiness is Form [serial online]. [Cited 2009 October 20]; [4 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/emptiness.html <br /><br />2. Bowker, J. 1997. Śūnyatā. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. UK: Encyclopedia.com. [Serial online]. [Cited 2009 April 28]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.encyclopedia.com <br /><br />3. Garfield, J.L. 1995. The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way: Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika, translation (from Tibetan) and commentary. New York: Oxford University Press.<br /><br />4. Srinivasiengar, C.N. 1967. The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics. Calcutta, India: World Press Private Ltd.<br /><br />5. Juskevic, A.P., Demidov, S.S., Medvedev, F.A., Slavutin, E.I. 1974. Studies in the History of Mathematics. Moscow: Nauka: 220-222; 302.<br /><br />6. Murthy, T.S.B. 1992. A Modern Introduction to Ancient Indian Mathematics. New Delhi, India: Wiley Eastern Ltd.<br /><br /> <br />7. Williams, P. 2009. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2nd edition. UK: Routledge: 69-82.<br /><br />8. Finkelstein, D.R., Wallace, B.A. ed. 2001. Emptiness and Relativity. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.<br /><br />9. Datta, B., Singh, A.N. 1962. History of Hindu mathematics. India: Asia Publishing House.<br /><br />10. Rao, S.B. 1994. Indian Mathematics and Astronomy. Bangalore, India: Jnana Deep Publications.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-47471155122219693652009-10-27T11:25:00.001-07:002009-10-27T11:25:53.351-07:00THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS OF MATTER IN MODERN SCIENCETHE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS OF MATTER<br />IN MODERN SCIENCE<br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, N. TESTERMAN, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen<br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /><br /><br />Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,<br />SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,<br /> KOLKATA – 700 091<br />WEST BENGAL, INDIA<br />Tel: +91-33-23215586<br />Mobile: +919434485543<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br /> <br />THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS OF MATTER IN MODERN SCIENCE <br /><br />Abstract<br /><br />The Buddhist analysis of matter goes hand in hand with our modern scientific understanding of matter. Quantum physics has recently proved that the major part of matter actually consists of empty space. Whenever we analyze matter, most of the time we come across emptiness, while the solid part of matter is hard to recognize. On one side all the atoms are empty at micro level, on the other side at macro level; most part of the space is also empty.<br /><br />Albert Einstein, the pioneer for Quantum Mechanics, and many modern scientists were very much influenced by the Buddhist doctrines related to the concepts of absence of any Creator God, absence of any soul or self (anatta), Dependent Origination (paticcasamuppada), impermanence (anicca) and the emphasis on practicing compassion with moral-driven, volitional activities (kamma). The meaning of the expression ‘Dependent Origination’ is the same as ‘emptiness’”, but it entails a further emphasis on the lack of intrinsic nature of dhammas and states that all dhammas are conceptual constructs.<br /><br />Key words: Buddhist, Matter, Empty, Space, Quantum Analysis.<br /> <br />THE CONCEPT OF EMPTINESS OF MATTER<br />IN MODERN SCIENCE<br /><br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />Dependent Origination demonstrates the interconnectedness of all phenomenons, their impermanence, their lack of an intrinsic self, and factors of conditioning. Likewise, emptiness for Nāgārjuna is equivalent to Dependent Origination as stated by Candrakīrti, “The meaning of the expression ‘Dependent Origination’ is the same as ‘emptiness’”, but it entails a further emphasis on the lack of intrinsic nature of dhammas and states that all dhammas are conceptual constructs.1<br /><br />To the Abhidhamma, dhammas are the smallest analyzable unit of existence, but for Nāgārjuna, even these dhammas are conceptual constructs, and understanding this is having proper wisdom (prañja): the understanding of emptiness. Nāgārjuna’s concept of emptiness can also be applied to the analysis of matter and explains why our very existence is based on emptiness.1<br /><br /><br />The Emptiness of Atoms <br />The ancient Greeks believed that matter is composed of indivisible small elements with certain characteristics, such as the characteristics of earth, water, air, and fire. They called these elements atoms and they held that atoms were solid and fundamental. However, Ernest Rutherford later demonstrated that atoms have an internal structure though an experimental verification. 2,3 <br /><br />Rutherford had discovered that atoms have a nucleus containing most of its mass and that electrons orbit the nucleus.2,3 Moreover, he established that the nucleus of an atom is only about one ten-thousandth of the diameter of the atom itself, which means that 99.99% of the atom's volume consists of empty space. This is the first manifestation of emptiness at the subtle level of matter.2,3<br /><br />Soon after Rutherford's discovery, physicists found that the nucleus of an atom likewise has an internal structure and that the protons and neutrons making up the nucleus are composed of even smaller particles, which they named quarks after a poem of James Joyce. Interestingly, quarks are hypothesized as geometrical points in space, which implies that atoms are essentially empty. This is the second manifestation of emptiness at the subtle level of matter.2,3<br /><br /><br /> <br />Emptiness and the Quantum<br />The terms "quarks" and "points in space" still suggest something solid, since they can be imagined as irreducible mass particles. Yet, quantum field theory does away even with this finer concept of solidity by explaining particles in the terms of field properties. Quantum electrodynamics (QED) has produced an amazingly successful theory of matter by combining quantum theory, classical field theory and relativity. No discrepancies between the predictions of QED and experimental observation have been found till date. According to QED, subatomic particles are indistinguishable from fields, whereas fields are basically properties of space. In this view, a particle is a temporary local densification of a field, which is conditioned by the properties of the surrounding space. This implies that matter is not different from space. This is the third manifestation of emptiness at the subtle level of matter.2,3,4<br /><br /><br />Emptiness and Interrelations of Quantum Physics <br />An important class of phenomena in the subatomic world is defined by the various interactions between particles. Although interactions can be described clearly in mathematical terms, there is no clear distinction between the notions of phenomena, particles and interactions. For example, there are interactions between free electrons by means of photons that result in an observed repelling force. There are also interactions between the quarks of a nucleon by means of mesons, interactions between the neighboring neutrons or protons, interactions between nucleus and electrons and interactions between the atoms of molecules. The phenomena themselves involving the nucleon, the nucleus, the atom and the molecule are sufficiently described by these interactions.2,3,4,5<br /><br />Study of the respective equations suggests that interactions and these phenomena are interchangeable terms. However, the interrelations of quantum physics do not describe actual existence. Instead they predict the potential for existence. A manifest particle, such as an electron, cannot be described in terms of classical mechanics. It exists as a multitude of superposed "scenarios" in which one or another manifests only when it is observed upon measurement. Therefore, matter does not inherently exist. It exists only as interrelations of "empty" phenomena whose properties are determined by observation. This is the fourth manifestation of emptiness at the subtle level of matter.2,3,4,5 <br /><br /> <br />Conclusion<br />Findings from the Buddhist analysis of matter goes hand in hand with our modern scientific understanding of matter. Quantum physics has recently proved that the major part of matter actually consists of empty space. Whenever we analyze matter, most of the time we come across emptiness, while the solid part of matter is hard to recognize. On one side all the atoms are empty at micro level, on the other side at macro level; most part of the space is also empty.2,3<br /><br />Albert Einstein, the pioneer for Quantum Mechanics, and many modern scientists were very much influenced by the Buddhist doctrines related to the concepts of absence of any Creator God, absence of any soul or self (anatta), Dependent Origination (paticcasamuppada), impermanence (anicca) and the emphasis on practicing compassion with moral-driven, volitional activities (kamma).4,5 <br /><br />Einstein had also predicted that the religion of the future will be a “cosmic religion” and enthusiastically stated that “if there is any religion that would cope with modern scientific needs, it would be Buddhism”.4 In his opinion, Buddhism has the characteristics of what would be expected in a cosmic religion for the future. Buddhism transcends a personal God and avoids dogma and theology. Buddhism covers both the natural and spiritual domains of human existence. Buddhism is also based on a religious sense aspiring from the experience of all things, natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity.4<br />References<br /><br />1. Williams, P. 2009. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2nd edition. UK: Routledge: 69-82.<br /><br />2. Knierim, T. 2009. Emptiness is Form [serial online]. [Cited 2009 October 20]; [4 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/emptiness.html <br /><br />3. Finkelstein, D.R., Wallace, B.A. ed. 2001. Emptiness and Relativity. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.<br /><br />4. Dukas, H., Hoffman B., ed. 1954. Albert Einstein: The Human Side. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.<br /><br />5. Jammer, M. 1999. Einstein and religion: physics and theology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-43195736890840472172009-10-27T11:23:00.000-07:002009-10-27T11:24:57.259-07:00RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ ) AND DEPENDENT ORIGINATIONRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ ) <br />AND DEPENDENT ORIGINATION<br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, N. TESTERMAN, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br /><br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /><br /><br /><br />Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,<br />SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,<br /> KOLKATA – 700 091<br />WEST BENGAL, INDIA<br />Tel: +91-33-23215586<br />Mobile: +919434485543<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br /><br /> <br />RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ ) <br />AND DEPENDENT ORIGINATION<br /><br />Abstract<br /><br /><br />The phrase "form is emptiness; emptiness is form" is perhaps the most celebrated paradox associated with Buddhist philosophy. The expression originates from the Prajna Paramita Hridaya Sutra, commonly known as the Heart Sutra, which contains the philosophical essence of about six hundred scrolls making up the Maha Prajna Paramita. Nāgārjuna’s unique version of emptiness is a direct result of the eight-fold method of negation. It is interpreted as non-arising, non-ceasing, non-permanence, non-annihilation, non-identity, non-difference, non-coming, and non-exiting. Through the eight-fold negation, all the concepts by which we normally apprehend the world are placed in the negative form. In this way, one is supposed to realize correct understanding of ‘emptiness’. <br /><br /><br />Key words: Emptiness, Śūnyatā, Nāgārjuna, form, Buddhist, Negation.<br /> <br />RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMPTINESS (ŚŪNYATĀ ) <br />AND DEPENDENT ORIGINATION<br /><br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />In early Buddhism, the term ‘suññatā’ or ‘śūnyatā’ is used primarily in connection with the ‘no-self’ (anatman) doctrine to denote that the Five Aggregates (skandhas) are ‘empty’ of the permanent self or soul which is erroneously imputed to them.1<br /><br />The doctrine of emptiness, however, received its fullest elaboration by Nāgārjuna, who wielded it skillfully to destroy the substantiality conceptions of the Abhidharma schools of the Theravāda. Since there cannot be anything that is not the Buddha-nature (buddhatā), all that appears is in truth devoid of characteristics. The doctrine of emptiness is the central tenet of the Mādhyamaka School. A statement of Nāgārjuna's views in support of it may be found in his Mūla-Mādhyamaka-Nārikā.1,2<br /><br />Nāgārjuna is regarded as the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy which he had established during the 2nd-3rd Century A.D. The ‘Mulamadhyamaka-Karika’ ("Fundamentals of the Middle Way") is his major work. 1,2 <br />It was originally composed in Sanskrit. The Sanskrit as well as early Tibetan versions of the work had survived without significant damage over the ages along with the later Chinese translations. Several complete English translations of the ‘Karika’ are available in recent times.1,2 <br /><br />Emptiness thus becomes a fundamental characteristic of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The teaching is subtle and its precise formulation a matter of sophisticated debate, since the slightest misunderstanding is said to obstruct progress towards final liberation. Emptiness is never a generalized vacuity, like an empty room, but always relates to a specific entity whose emptiness is being asserted. In this way up to twenty kinds of emptiness are recognized, including the emptiness of emptiness. The necessary indiscoverability is the essence of emptiness of Mādhyamika. It is important to distinguish this emptiness from nihilism.1,2,3<br /><br />The Buddhist notion of emptiness is often misunderstood as nihilism. Unfortunately, 19th century Western philosophy has contributed much to this misrepresentation. However, the only thing that nihilism and the teaching of emptiness can be said to have in common is a skeptical outset. Nihilism concludes that reality is unknowable, that nothing exists, that nothing meaningful can be communicated about the world. The Buddhist notion of emptiness is just the opposite. It states that the ultimate reality is knowable, there is a clear-cut ontological basis for phenomena and we can communicate and derive useful knowledge from it about the world. Emptiness (śūnyatā) must not be confused with nothingness. Emptiness is not non-existence and it is not non-reality.1,2,3,4<br /><br />However, in Yogācāra (Vijñānavāda), emptiness is taught as the inability to think of an object apart from the consciousness which thinks of that object, i.e. the necessary indissolubility of subject and object in the process of knowing is the concept of emptiness in Yogācāra. It is important to distinguish this from idealism and solipsism.1<br /><br /><br />The Concept of Emptiness<br /> In order to understand the philosophical meaning of the term emptiness (śūnyatā ), let us take a simple solid object, such as a bowl. We usually say that a bowl is empty if it does not contain any liquid or solid. This is the ordinary meaning of emptiness. But a bowl empty of liquids or solids is still full of air. To be precise, we must therefore state what the bowl is empty or devoid of. A bowl in a vacuum does not contain any air, but it still contains space, light, radiation, as well as its own substance. Hence, from a physical point of view, the bowl is always full of something. But from the Buddhist point of view, the bowl is always empty. The Buddhist understanding of emptiness is different from the physical meaning. The bowl being empty means that it is devoid of inherent existence.3,4,5<br /><br /><br />The Concept of Non-inherent Existence <br />Though from the Buddhist point of view everything is impermanent, but this does not mean that the bowl is non-existent. The bowl actually exists, but like everything in this world, its existence depends on other phenomena. There is nothing in a bowl that is inherent to that specific bowl in general. Properties such as being hollow, spherical, cylindrical or leak-proof are not intrinsic to bowls. Other objects which are not bowls have similar properties, as for example, vases and glasses. The bowl's properties and components are neither bowls themselves nor do they imply our perception of bowl on their own. The material is not the bowl. The shape is not the bowl. The function is not the bowl. Only all these aspects together make up the bowl. Hence, we can say that for an object to be a bowl we require a collection of specific conditions to exist. It depends on the combination of function, use, shape, base material and the bowl's other aspects. Only if all these conditions exist simultaneously does the mind impute the label of a bowl to the object. If one condition ceases to exist, for instance, if the bowl's shape is altered by breaking it, the bowl forfeits some or all of its attributes and our mind cannot perceive it as a bowl anymore. The bowl's existence thus depends on external circumstances. Its physical essence remains elusive.3,4,5,6<br /><br />It is our mind that perceives properties of an object and imputes attributes such as bowl onto one object and table onto another. It is the mind that thinks "bowl" and "table". Apparently, the mind does not perceive bowls and tables if there is no visual and tactile sensation. However, there cannot be visual and tactile sensation if there is no physical object. The perception thus depends on the presence of sensations, which in turn relies on the presence of the physical object. We must understand that the bowl's essence is not in the mind, also it is never found in the physical object. Obviously, its essence is neither physical nor mental. As the essence of an object cannot be found either in our external world or in our mind, we must conclude that the objects of perception have therefore no inherent existence. 3,4,5,6<br /><br />If this is the case for a simple object, such as a bowl, then it must also apply to compound things, such as cars, houses and machines. For example, a car needs a motor, wheels, axles, gears and many other things to work. We should also consider the difference between man-made objects, such as bowls, and natural phenomena, such as earth, plants, animals and human beings. One may argue that lack of inherent existence of objects does not imply the same for natural phenomena and beings. In case of a human being, there is a body, a mind, a character, a history of actions, habits, behavior and other things to describe a person. We can even divide these characteristics further into more fundamental properties. For example, we can analyze the mind and see that there are sensations, cognition, feelings and ideas. 3,4,5,6<br /><br />We can analyze the brain and find that there are neurons, axons, synapses, and neurotransmitters. However, none of these constituents describe the essence of the person, the mind, or the brain. Here again, the essence remains elusive.3,4,5,6<br /><br />Emptiness of Emptiness:<br />The ultimate nature of reality is deepened and enhanced in our mind. We would develop a perception of reality from which we could perceive phenomena and events as sort of illusory or illusion-like. This mode of perceiving reality would permeate all our interactions with reality. Even emptiness itself, which is seen as the ultimate nature of reality, is not absolute, nor does it exist independently. We cannot conceive of emptiness as independent of a basis of phenomena. Because when we examine the nature of reality, we find that it is empty of inherent existence. If we are to take that emptiness itself as an object and look for its essence, again we would find that it is empty of inherent existence. Therefore, the Buddha actually taught us the “emptiness of emptiness.” 3,4,5,6 <br /><br /><br />The Concept of Dependent Origination<br />The Principle of Dependent Origination or the Doctrine of Impermanence is a twelve-factor formula titled Paṭiccasamuppāda in Pāli. The key concepts within the causal relationships are identified as the antecedents and consequents in a linear sequence. One factor is identified as a conditioning factor for the next which in turn is the conditioning factor for the following factor until the final stage, the twelfth concept, birth, which recommences the process of existence and becoming and the whole twelve steps.6 <br /><br />This formula can also be viewed in reverse order to indicate how the removal or cessation of one factor leads to the predominant influence of another factor, and down the line until the first conditioning factor – ignorance – is removed completely thus eliminating the proliferation and building of factors. Once this is achieved an individual can be said to be enlightened because he is no longer haunted by the specter of ignorance as he has defeated the three poisons and understood the arising and ceasing of phenomenon.4,6 <br /><br />The traditional interpretation of this formula states that this is what causes the arising or rebirth and death and requires at least three lifetimes. The Dependent Origination can be viewed microcosmically and be applied just to this lifetime to describe the arising and ceasing of thoughts and the perceptual process, thereby indicating the correct way to apprehend an object if enlightenment is sought.4,6 <br /><br /><br />The Concept of Emptiness in Relation with Dependent Origination<br />Dependent Origination demonstrates the interconnectedness of all phenomenons, their impermanence, their lack of an intrinsic self, and factors of conditioning. Likewise, emptiness for Nāgārjuna is equivalent to Dependent Origination as stated by Candrakīrti, “The meaning of the expression ‘Dependent Origination’ is the same as ‘emptiness’”, but it entails a further emphasis on the lack of intrinsic nature of dhammas and states that all dhammas are conceptual constructs. To the Abhidhamma, dhammas are the smallest analyzable unit of existence, but for Nāgārjuna, even these dhammas are conceptual constructs, and understanding this is having proper wisdom (prañja): the understanding of emptiness.2,4,6<br /><br />Dependent Origination is the main ontological principle in early Buddhism and Abhidhamma Buddhism, but in Nagrajuna’s system emptiness becomes the term to represent this chief ontological principle. He writes, “It is Dependent Origination that we call emptiness”. Dependent arising and emptiness describe how reality comes to be; as such, it is ultimate truth and an ontological truth. This emphasis of emptiness as an ultimate truth is a later development unique to Nāgārjuna and later Buddhist thought. Nāgārjuna emphasizes the lack of intrinsic existence in the conventional level of reality. This lack must be apprehended by understanding the ultimate truth of emptiness.2,4,6 <br /><br />These two levels of reality mutually imply each other. Emptiness becomes dhammatta, the true nature of things. A commentator to Nāgārjuna describes emptiness as, “non conditioned by others, quiescent, accessible to saints only by direct intuition, beyond all verbal differentiations, still, it is nothing more than the mere absence of inherently or intrinsically real existence.” As a principle śūnyatā states that everything that one encounters in life is empty of a permanent soul or inherent nature and is inter-related, never self-sufficient, or independent; thus nothing has independent reality.2,4,6<br /><br />Although there are different ways to explain the theory of emptiness, all are based on the theory of Dependent Origination. Nāgārjuna provides an insightful formulation of śūnyatā as the mark of all phenomena, as a natural consequence of Dependent Origination and an elaboration upon dependent arising. A further elaboration upon Dependent Origination is that the concept of emptiness is not itself a true doctrine or view, but is a therapeutic device. Nāgārjuna had explained this as the “antidote to all viewpoints (ḍṛṣṭi)”.2,4,6<br /><br /><br /> <br />Conclusion<br />Emptiness is a key concept in Buddhist philosophy, or more precisely, in the ontology of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The phrase "form is emptiness; emptiness is form" is perhaps the most celebrated paradox associated with Buddhist philosophy. It is the supreme mantra. The expression originates from the Prajna Paramita Hridaya Sutra, commonly known as the Heart Sutra, which contains the philosophical essence of about six hundred scrolls making up the Maha Prajna Paramita. The Heart Sutra is the shortest text in this collection. It belongs to the oldest Mahāyāna texts and presumably originated in India around the time of Jesus Christ.2,4,5,6<br /><br />Nāgārjuna’s unique version of emptiness is a direct result of the eight-fold method of negation. It is interpreted as non-arising, non-ceasing, non-permanence, non-annihilation, non-identity, non-difference, non-coming, and non-exiting. Through the eight-fold negation, all the concepts by which we normally apprehend the world are placed in the negative form. In this way, one is supposed to realize correct understanding of ‘emptiness’. By understanding the ‘emptiness’ of these concepts by which we conceptually construct and apprehend the world and even the Dhamma, the teaching of the Buddha, one can understand the emptiness of emptiness (śunyatāśunyatā). This is an innovation in Buddhist thought attributed to Nāgārjuna.2,3,4,6<br /><br /> <br />References<br />1. Bowker, J. 1997. Śūnyatā. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. UK: Encyclopedia.com. [Serial online]. [Cited 2009 April 28]; [2 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.encyclopedia.com <br /><br />2. Garfield, J.L. 1995. The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way: Nāgārjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika, translation (from Tibetan) and commentary. New York: Oxford University Press.<br /><br />3. Finkelstein, D.R., Wallace, B.A. ed. 2001. Emptiness and Relativity. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.<br /><br />4. McCagney, N. 1997. Nāgārjuna and the Philosophy of Openness. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers: 135-218. <br /><br />5. Knierim, T. 2009. Emptiness is Form [serial online]. [Cited 2009 October 20]; [4 screens]. Available from: URL: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/emptiness.html <br /><br />6. Williams, P. 2009. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2nd edition. UK: Routledge: 69-82.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-6613272173691669182009-10-27T11:19:00.001-07:002009-10-27T11:19:50.725-07:00APPLIED BUDDHISM: THE FOUNDATION OF OUR TRUE UNDERSTANDINGThis is a preview version. To order the complete book, please visit “Bookstore” of website: http://www.unibook.com <br />Or Click on: http://www.unibook.com/unibook/site/bookdetail/?bookid=8392<br /><br /><br />APPLIED BUDDHISM:<br />THE FOUNDATION OF OUR TRUE UNDERSTANDING<br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, N. TESTERMAN, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br /><br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /><br />Background: Dr. Ankur Barua had graduated with distinction from the University of Hong Kong (MBuddStud, 2009). He had also completed two other Master Degrees, one from Sikkim Manipal University (MBAIT, 2007) while the other from Manipal University (MBBS-2000, MD in Community Medicine - 2003) and presently working in professional field. <br />Mr. N. Testerman had graduated with distinction from the University of Hong Kong (MBuddStud, 2009) and is currently pursuing his PhD in Philosophical studies in California, US. <br />Ms. M.A. Basilio is a nursing professional who has also a keen passion for conducting research on religion and science.<br /><br />First Publication on 26th October 2009<br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br /><br />Copyright © Ankur Barua, N. Testerman and M.A.Basilio<br /><br />Communication Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,<br />Salt Lake City, Sector-2,<br />Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br />Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)<br /> <br />Contents<br /><br />Items Page No.<br /><br />Acknowledgements 04<br />Preface 05<br />The Concept of Applied Buddhism 06<br />Relationship between Emptiness (Śūnyatā ) and Dependent Origination 10<br />The Concept of Emptiness of Matter in Modern Science 19<br />The Concept of Emptiness (Śūnyatā ) in Modern Mathematics 24<br />Concluding Remarks 42<br /> <br />Acknowledgements<br /><br /><br />The authors would like to extend their sincere thanks to Ven. Dr. Jing Yin, Professor of Buddhist Studies and Director of the Centre of Buddhist Studies in the University of Hong Kong for his kind support, inspiration, encouragement and timely advice during the compilation of this book.<br /><br />The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude and indebtedness to Prof. Y. Karunadasa and Ven. Dr. Guang Xing, the eminent professors at the Centre of Buddhist Studies in the University of Hong Kong for their constant encouragement, constructive criticism, personal attention and valuable guidance throughout this work.<br /><br />The authors would also like to acknowledge gratefully Dr. Dipak Kumar Barua, who was the earlier Dean of the Faculty Council for Postgraduate Studies in Education, Journalism & Library Science in the University of Calcutta (1987-1991) and the Director of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda (1996-1999) for his technical guidance and valuable advice on various aspects of this project. <br /><br /><br /> <br />Preface<br /><br />“Applied Buddhism” is the foundation of our true understanding of all the events occurring in nature. The term “Applied Buddhism” explains how every person can relate Buddhist ideas in his or her daily life and in profession. This book is a humble endeavour to motivate the new learners and provide them first-hand guidance on the vastness of the Philosophical approach of Buddhism. This book is a simplified version and provides guidance on how to apply the principles of the Doctrine of the Buddha in our day to day life in an effective manner. <br /><br />In recent times, some of the new concepts that have evolved in Buddhism are Engaged Buddhism, Social Buddhism, Socially Engaged Buddhism and Green Buddhism. “Applied Buddhism” is an effort to integrate all these scattered aspects of Buddhism under one single and unified concept. Through this Applied Buddhism, one should be able to follow Buddhism without being a Buddhist.<br /> <br />THE CONCEPT OF APPLIED BUDDHISM<br /><br />Introduction<br /> “Applied Buddhism” is the application of Buddhist teachings in our daily life. It is a broad umbrella under which all the essential aspects of life such as physical, mental, social and spiritual wellbeing as well as philosophical, bioethical, financial and modern scientific aspects could be incorporated. This includes the Buddhist ideas practiced by the three major schools of Buddhist thoughts in modern era, namely the Theravada, Mahāyāna and Vajrayana / Tantrayana (Tibetan) traditions. Apart from the commonly discussed philosophical and psychological aspects, more emphasis is given here on the traditional culture and social aspects of Buddhism.1<br /><br />“Applied Buddhism” also shares valuable information on Buddhist contributions to modern science, health and wellbeing. As our concept of wellbeing is directly related to our mental and spiritual health, Buddhist Meditational practices are given the prime importance for prevention of mental illnesses and recommended for incorporation in the regimen of regular psychotherapy and in primary and secondary school curriculum as a part of primordial prevention.1<br /><br /><br />Importance of Applied Buddhism<br />Without disrespecting the significance of religious rituals, the myths and beliefs and traditional local ceremonial practices related to Buddhism are however, carefully extracted and excluded from this domain of “Applied Buddhism”. <br /> <br />This is intentionally done in order to make the Buddhist ideas more acceptable to people belonging other religious realms and cultural backgrounds. The idea behind this is to enable people practice Buddhism without being converted into a Buddhist. One should understand that Buddhism is not just a religion, but a way of life.1 <br /><br />In order to incorporate Buddhist ideas in daily life, one need not give up his or her own religion. Just that one can remain spiritual without being religious, in the same way; one can practice Buddhist teachings without formally being a Buddhist.1 <br /><br /><br />Applied Aspect of Buddhism: Integration of Buddhist Philosophy with Activities in Daily Life1,2<br />Thus, the term “Applied Buddhism” explains how every person can relate Buddhist ideas in his or her daily life and in profession. The main focus of this new concept is to diffuse the teachings of the Buddha in every nook and corner of the society, so that all sentient beings, irrespective of their religion, culture and creed can benefit from it. In recent times, some of the new concepts that have evolved in Buddhism are Engaged Buddhism, Social Buddhism, Socially Engaged Buddhism and Green Buddhism. Like the “String Theory” of quantum physics, “Applied Buddhism” is an effort to integrate all these scattered aspects of Buddhism under one single and unified concept in order to make it more appealing to the global community. Through this Applied Buddhism, one should be able to follow Buddhism without being a Buddhist.<br /><br /><br /> <br />Evolution of the Concept of Applied Buddhism1,2 <br />The term “Applied Buddhism” was first coined by an eminent Buddhist Scholar from India, Dr. Dipak Kumar Barua. He was the elected Dean of the Faculty Council for Postgraduate Studies in Education, Journalism & Library Science in the University of Calcutta, West Bengal, India (1987-1991) and the Director of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda (a Deemed University) in Nalanda, Bihar, India (1996-1999). He had discussed at length about this new concept of “Applied Buddhism” in his Book entitled, “Applied Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern Perspectives”. This book was first published during the year 2005 by the Centre of Buddhist Studies, under the aegis of the Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies of the Banaras Hindu University in India. However, due to limited publications and restricted circulation of this book within the country, the new concept of “Applied Buddhism” could not be popularized outside India for quite some time. However, during the later years, this new concept was widely appreciated by the renowned scholars in various intellectual forums throughout the world. The common people from varied religious background also found comfort in easy understanding of the principle teachings of the Buddha.<br /><br /><br />Conclusion<br />This new concept of the applied aspect of Buddhism is destined to bridge the gap of understanding that exists due to misinterpretation of the teachings of the Buddha by people belonging to diverse religious backgrounds. Once popularized and accepted, it would pave the way in promoting peace and harmony in the society. Applied Buddhism is also a noble endeavor to integrate the Buddhist philosophy with modern science and technology. This applied philosophy is an integral part of our daily life and is expected to be accepted by everyone without any discrimination.<br /> <br />References<br />1. Barua, A., Basilio, M.A. 2009. Applied Buddhism in Modern Science: Episode 1. Hong Kong: Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen & Unibook Publications.<br /><br />2. Barua, D.K. 2005. Environment & Human Resources: Buddhist Approaches. Applied Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern Perspectives. . Varanasi, India: Centre for Buddhist Studies, Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies, Benaras Hindu University: 90-6.<br /> <br />Concluding Remarks<br /><br />“Applied Buddhism” is the foundation of our true understanding of all the phenomena occurring in nature. “Applied Buddhism” is also an effort to integrate all the practical aspects of Buddhism in order to make it more appealing and easily conceivable by the global community. Through this Applied Buddhism, one should be able to practically apply the teachings of the Buddha in his day to day life, without taking up Buddhism as a religion. Thus, Buddhism would live forever and passed on from generation to generation through the innovative interpretations of the Doctrines of the Buddha.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-28974044254376247062009-10-25T05:41:00.001-07:002009-10-25T05:41:32.669-07:00UNANSWERED QUESTIONS IN BUDDHISMUNANSWERED QUESTIONS IN BUDDHISM<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br />Hong Kong, 2009 <br />UNANSWERED QUESTIONS IN BUDDHISM<br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br />Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br /> <br /><br />Introduction <br />Ever since the academic study of Buddhism began in the early 19th century, one question that has intrigued modern scholars is why the Buddha deemed it unnecessary to answer certain questions. Although the Buddha gave his own reasons for leaving these questions unanswered, modern scholars wanted to know what other reasons lay behind the Buddha’s “silence”. The main problem in deciphering the correct interpretation of the Buddha’s silence on some questions is due to the following reasons:<br /><br />1. Many scholars failed to notice that the Pali Suttas presented, not one, but two separate lists of unanswered questions, one containing ten and the other, four.<br /><br />2. The failure to take into consideration the commentarial gloss of the term ‘tathagata’ as it occurs in the list of unanswered questions.<br /><br />3. The failure to give due consideration to the Buddhist teachings relating to the psychological genesis of ideologies, which has resulted in a number of totally unacceptable interpretations as to why the Buddha left some questions unanswered.<br /><br />4. The attempt to understand the unanswered questions in the light of several speculative ideologies, when it is clearly stated in the teachings of the Buddha that all speculative views and ideological stances are due to “sakkaya-ditthi”, i.e. the insertion of the ego-centric perspective into the domain of perceptual experience.<br /> <br /><br />The category of unanswered questions, as is well known, is closely connected with the Buddhist teaching relating to four kinds of questions. They are (1) A question that ought to be explained categorically (ekamsa- vyakaraniya), (2) A question that ought to be explained analytically (vibhajja-vyakaraniya), (3) A question that needs to be explained with a counter-question (patipuccha vyakaraniya) and (4) A question that ought to be set aside (thapaniya).<br /><br />Both Pali and Sanskrit sources agree in listing the unanswered (avyakata) questions as examples of this category. These questions are to be set aside (sthapaniya) because there is no objective entity corresponding to the word “living being” (sattva) and therefore to predicate something of something that really does not exist is meaningless. <br /><br /><br />Existence of unanswered questions from Cula-Malunkyaputta Sutta and Aggivacchagotta Sutta of the Majjhimanikaya and Avyakata Samyutta of the Samyuttanikaya<br />There are altogether fourteen such questions, made into two lists, the longer list containing ten while the shorter list containing only four. The longer list occurs in a number of early Buddhist discourses, the main reference being the Cula-Malunkyaputta Sutta of the Majjhimanikaya. The ten questions listed are:<br /><br />1. Sassato loko ti (Is the world eternal)<br />2. Asassato loko ti (Is the world not eternal)<br />3. Antava loko ti (Is the world finite)<br />4. Anantava loko ti (Is the world infinite)<br />5. Tam jivam tam sariran ti (Is the soul the same as the body)<br />6. Annam jivam annam sariran ti (Is the soul different from the body)<br />7. Hoti tathagato param marana ti (Does the tathagata exist after death)<br />8. Na hoti tathagato param marana ti (Does the tathagata not exist after death)<br />9. Hoti ca na hoti ca tathagato param maran ti (Does the tathagata both exist and non-exist after death)<br />10.Neva hoti na na hoti tathagato parammarana ti (Does the tathagata neither exist nor non-exist after death).<br /> <br /><br />The four questions of the shorter list are:<br />1. Hoti tathagato parammarana ti (Does the tathagata exist after death?)<br />2. Na hoti tathagato parammarana ti (Does the tathagata non-exist after death?)<br />3. Hoti ca na hoti ca tathagato parammarana ti (Does the tathagata both exist and non-exist after death?)<br />4. Neva hoti na na hoti tathagato parammarana ti (Does the tathagata neither exist nor non-exist after death?)<br /><br />It will be readily noticed that the four questions in this shorter list are identical in wording with the last four questions in the longer list. This is perhaps the main reason that prevents us from noticing that there are two lists of unanswered questions mentioned in the Pali Suttas. However, the Pali Suttas never make a confusion of these two lists. They are always presented as two different lists: in the longer list the term tathagata always means the living being (satta) or as a separate self-entity (atta); whereas in the shorter list the term in question always means the one who has realized the truth and attained the final goal of Nibbana. However, according to the Pali commentaries in both lists the term tathagata occurs in the sense of a living being (satta) or as a separate self–entity (atta). <br />The Probable Reasons Why These Questions Were Left Aside Unanswered<br />We need to know why Buddhism deems it unnecessary to answer the questions contained in the two lists. In this connection there are three points that we should take into consideration. The first point refers to the fact that the fourteen questions in the two lists are never presented in the Buddhist texts as unanswerable (“avyakaraniya”) questions. On the contrary, they are questions that have been left unanswered (avyakata). To call them unanswerable amounts to declare that they are perfectly legitimate questions but that any answer to them transcends the limits of knowledge. <br /><br />The second point is that, if these questions have been declared unanswered or undetermined, this does not mean that they have been rejected as false. To reject them as false is certainly to answer them and not to leave them unanswered. In this connection the commentary to the Anguttaranikaya says that “unanswered” (avyakata) means that which has not been answered categorically, or analytically, or by raising a counter-question. <br /><br />The Third point that we need to keep in mind here is that it is not correct to say that the Buddha was silent on these questions. On the contrary, he very much responded to them. Although he did not give a categorical answer to any of the questions, but he stated the reasons for his not determining these questions as true or false. <br /><br /><br />Examination of the ten unanswered questions of the longer list <br />We need to note here that the first list of ten questions was there before the rise of Buddhism. These ten questions had been a subject of much controversy among the many religious and philosophical circles at the time of the rise of Buddhism. It will be noticed that the first four questions in the longer list concern the nature of the world or the universe that we inhabit. They relate to the problem whether it is finite or infinite in terms of time (sassato, asassato) and space (antava, anantava). <br /><br />The next two questions deal with the relationship between the soul and the physical body. The first represents ucchedavada, the belief in a physical self which is temporary because it comes to annihilation at death. The second represents the belief in a self which is metaphysical and permanent (sassatavada) and which thus survives the break-up of the body at the time of death. The last four questions in the first list relate to the post-mortem existence of “tathagata”. As mentioned in the Pali commentaties, the term “tathagata” as it occurs in this particular context means the living being (satta) in the sense of a separate self-entity (satto tathagato ti adhippeto), or the soul (tathagato ti atta). <br />The word “tathagata” in this longer list, does not refer to the person who has attained Nibbana, though most of the modern scholars who wrote on the subject did not seem to have noticed the commentarial gloss of this term. <br /><br />The Doctrine of Dependent Origination is an explanation in terms of causality, the origination and cessation of suffering. Hence all Buddhist teachings, whether they relate to the nature of actuality, the nature of knowledge, theory and practice of the moral life, are all related to the problem of suffering and its cessation. <br /><br /><br />Parable of the Poisoned Arrow<br />It is against this background that we need to understand why Buddhism has set aside (thapita) certain questions as undetermined (avyakata). Nothing illustrates this situation better than the parable of the poisoned arrow (sallupama). When the monk Malunkyaputta wanted to know from the Buddha the answers to these ten questions, the Buddha told him that these questions are “undetermined, set aside, and rejected” by the Blessed One. The answers to these questions are not relevant to understanding the fact of suffering and its elimination. It is as irrelevant as the need to know the name of the person who shot the arrow in order to remove it from the body. <br />But here we should keep in mind that the parable of the poisoned arrow seems to imply indirectly that questions regarding who shot the arrow, etc. can in principle be answered though they are irrelevant for the purpose of a cure.<br /> <br /><br />Parable of the Simsapa Leaves<br />Some scholars believed that the Buddha knew the answers to all these questions, but as they were irrelevant for gaining spiritual knowledge or salvation, he had left them aside. The parable of the Simsapa leaves appear to support this conclusion. The parable of the Simsapa leaves states that what the Buddha knew but did not preach was comparable to the leaves on the trees of the Simsapa forest, while what he taught was as little as the leaves on his hand. But in reality, we cannot get too much clarity in the parable of the arrow and also the parable of the Simsapa leaves does not necessarily imply that the ten questions were meaningful.<br /><br /><br />Four different views of the modern scholars as to why the Buddha left certain questions unanswered<br />According to the first view, the Buddha did not know the answers to them (Skepticism, Naïve Agnosticism). According to the second view, the Buddha knew the answers, but deliberately left those unanswered because they were not relevant to Buddhism as a religion (Pragmatism). According to the third view, the questions go beyond the limits of knowledge (Rational Agnosticism). According to the fourth only the first four questions go beyond limits of knowledge (Rational Agnosticism) whereas the other six are logically meaningless (Logical Positivism).<br /><br /><br />Critical analysis of the four views given by the modern scholars<br />The Buddhist attitude towards the personality view (attavada) and partial truths (pacceka sacca) can explain this reason very clearly from the concept of Buddhist Psychology of Ideologies.<br /><br />(a) The Buddha is free from Personality View (Attavada)<br />From the Buddhist perspective, all the ten questions in the longer list are a product of the personality view. They range from the four primary elements of matter to such abstract categories as diversity and unity, the idea of totality and Nibbana as the supreme goal. Thus as long as what is referred to as personality view (sakkaya-ditthi) persists, so long will our pronouncements on the nature of reality be conditioned by the egocentric perspective. The Buddha does not answer the ten undetermined questions it is because the Buddha is free from the personality view. What this clearly implies is that once the ego-notion is eliminated, the very validity of raising such questions gets eliminated. In other words, in the context of the Buddhist teaching relating to the nature of reality, they become meaningless questions.<br /><br />(b) Concept of Pacceka-Saccas <br />The commentarial explanation of pacceka-sacca does not justify them either as partial truths or as individual truths. The analogy of the elephant and the blind men, as the commentary says, is to illustrate how what is called sakkaya, i.e. the group of the five aggregates of grasping (panca upadanakkhandha) becomes a basis for many kinds of misinterpretations. Just as each blind man touches one part of the elephant and mistakenly believes that to be the shape of the elephant; even so each party mistakenly takes one of the five aggregates, such as, material form, or feelings as the self and attributes to it such characteristics as eternity or non-eternity. We need to remember that according to Buddhism, all assertions on the absolute reality of the self as well as all denials on the absolute non-reality of the self are all traceable to the five aggregates of grasping; they are all based on a misinterpretation of their true nature. <br /><br /><br />The List of Four Undetermined Questions in Shorter List<br />The four questions of the shorter list refer to the post-mortem status of the “Tathagata”, where the term means the liberated saint and not the soul or the self-entity as when it occurs in the longer list. What happens to the liberated saint after death is a question to which other religious teachers, too, had to provide answers, because each religious system had its own notion of the perfect saint, described as uttama-purisa, parama-purisa, and paramappattipatta. One of the most important sources for our understanding the Buddhist response to this question is the Aggivacchagotta Sutta of the Majjhimanikaya. As recorded here Vaccha, the wandering ascetic, visits the Buddha and raises one by one the ten questions in the longer list. On being told why the Buddha does not explain them, he then raises the four questions relating to the post-mortem status of the liberated saint. <br /><br />The term used here is not Tathagata but “the monk whose mind is liberated” (vimuttacitta-bhilkkhu). But it means the same as the Tathagata in the sense of the liberated saint. The four questions relate to whether he is born after death, or is not born, or is both born and non-born or is neither born nor non-born. Here “is born” is the same in intent as “exists”. <br /><br /><br />Fire Analogy in relation to the “Tathagata”<br />The Buddha’s response to the four alternative possibilities proposed by Vacchagotta is neither one of acceptance nor one of rejection but that none of the alternative possibilities “fits the case” (na upeti). The commentarial gloss of the term is “not proper”, or “does not apply” (na yujjati). One reason why Vaccha could not grasp the full significance of the Buddha’s reply was his being conditioned by a set of views and view-points totally at variance with the Buddha’s Dhamma. The above statement that none of the four alternatives fits the case has given rise to a widespread belief that the post–mortem status of the Tathagata is some kind of mystical absorption with an Absolute that transcends the four alternative possibilities proposed by Vaccha. <br /><br />In other words, that the liberated saint enters, after death, into a transcendental realm that transcends all descriptions in terms of existence, non-existence, both existence and non-existence, or neither existence nor non existence. It has also been suggested that if the four questions were considered meaningless, this meaninglessness is partly due to the inadequacy of the concepts contained in them to refer to this state.<br /><br /><br /><br /> <br />Conclusion<br />In summing up the correct position to Anuradha, the Buddha says that both formerly and now “it is just suffering and the cessation of suffering” that he proclaims. This statement could be considered as the final answer to the question why any predication on the post-mortem status of the liberated saint is not legitimate. From the Buddhist perspective, if anything arises it is only suffering, and if anything ceases it is also only suffering. And it is just suffering and its cessation that the Buddha proclaims. Therefore what is extinguished when Nibbana is won is only suffering. It is not the annihilation of an independently existing self-entity, i.e. the ego-illusion and all that it entails and implies. <br /><br /><br />Thus, at the end, it becomes evident that all the ten questions in the longer list as well as the four questions in the shorter list were all meaningless, because they were all based on a wrong approach to the nature of reality. In the context of Buddhist teachings none of the fourteen questions arise as valid questions. When we say meaningless this must be understood entirely from the Buddhist perspective, not from the perspective of any other religion or philosophy, modern or ancient, eastern or western.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-52801143376687343562009-10-25T05:30:00.001-07:002009-10-25T05:30:33.901-07:00THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH: A CRITICAL BUDDHIST RESPONSE TO SASSATAVADA AND UCCHEDAVADATHE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH: <br />A CRITICAL BUDDHIST RESPONSE TO SASSATAVADA AND UCCHEDAVADA<br /><br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /> <br />THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH: A CRITICAL BUDDHIST RESPONSE TO SASSATAVADA AND UCCHEDAVADA<br /><br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br />Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />The people in the world have a general tendency to lean upon one of the two views of either “All exists” as one extreme or “All does not exist” as the second extreme. The early Buddhist discourses referred to the mutual opposition between these two views. On one side we have the view of permanence or eternalism (sassatavada) while on the other side there is the view of annihilation (ucchedavada). <br /><br />The view of permanence or eternalism (sassatavada) is known as bhava-ditthi or the belief in “being”; while the view of annihilation (ucchedavada) is known as vibhava-ditthi or the belief in “non-being”. But without accepting either of these two extreme views, the Buddha preached the Dhamma by the Middle which is also known as the Noble Eightfold Path.<br /><br /><br /> <br />Earlier Concept of Sassatavada and Ucchedavada<br />Most of the religions in modern times are a linear development of Vedic thought while others have emerged either in isolation or in opposition to it. But they all appear to believe in a “soul” or “self-entity” and emphasize the fact that while the soul is something permanent, the body is something perishable. There is general agreement among all religions that since this self-entity (soul) is something immutable, it survives death and man's true essence is to be found in this self-entity (soul). This belief in a permanent spiritual substance within man (metaphysical self ) was represented in the Pali suttas as sassatavada. <br /><br />However, the materialistic view questioned the validity of theological and metaphysical theories which do not come within the domain of sense-experience. This explains why they rejected the religious version of atmavada, the belief in a metaphysical self. There is no observable self-entity apart from the body. If this self-entity really exists, then it must be identical with the physical body as what we see or perceive around us. Because materialism identifies the self with the physical body, it necessarily follows that at death, the self too is annihilated without any prospect of post-mortal existence. This was represented in the Buddhist texts as ucchedavada (annihilationism).<br /><br /><br />Critical Buddhist Evaluation of Sassatavada and Ucchedavada<br />The Buddhist doctrines assumed their significance from the critique of sassatavada and ucchedavada. Buddhism constructed its own world-view through the demolition of these two pre-existing world-views and emerged as a new faith amidst many other faiths in the form of a critical response to the mutual opposition between these two views. Sassatavada emphasizes the duality between the soul and the body. As a result, man's emancipation is based on this notion of duality. The gravitational pull of the body, that is gratification in sensuality, prevents the upward journey of soul. Deliverance of the soul, its perpetuation in a state of eternal bliss, thus requires the mortification of the flesh, represented in the Buddhist texts as attakilamathanuyoga (self-mortification) which led to a variety of ascetic practices during the time of the Buddha. A case in point was Jainism, which advocated rigid austerities to liberate the soul.<br /><br />Ucchedavada (materialism), on the other hand, believes that ‘man is a pure product of the earth' awaiting annihilation at death. His aim in this temporary life thus cannot be the rejection of sense-pleasures in the pursuit of a higher spiritual ideal which is described in the Buddhist texts as kamasukhallikanuyoga (sensual gratification). Thus, self-mortification and sensual gratification represent the practical aspects of the two theories of sasssatavada and ucchedavada.<br /><br />After making a critical assessment, Buddhism rejected both sassatavada and ucchedavada. Since ucchedavada rejects survival and encourages man to lead a life without any obligation of moral responsibility or inhibitions and encourages gratification in sensuality as the ultimate purpose in life, the Buddha was more critical of ucchedavada. He used three terms to criticize the ucchedavada, which are hina (inferior), gamma (rustic or vulgar) and pothujjanika (worldly). Since sassatavada never lead to the collapse of moral life, the Buddha was sympathetic towards sassatavada, though it does not lead to the realization of the ideal of emancipation (anattha-samhita). As it recognizes a spiritual source in man, it also recognizes moral distinctions. <br /><br /><br />Buddhist Concept of Atmavada<br />The Buddhist understanding of atmavada describes that any kind of thing, whether it is material, mental or spiritual, could become an Atman if it becomes an object of self-identification. This process of self-identification is said to manifest itself in three ways: this is mine (etam mama); this I am (esoham asmi); and this is my self (eso me atta). As materialism takes the body to be the self as an object of self-identification, it is also a variety of atmavada. But what materialists identify as the self is not a metaphysical entity, but the perishable physical body. However, in the context of Buddhist teachings, what matters is not the permanence or impermanence of the object of self-identification, but the very fact of self-identification. Thus, Buddhism views both sassatavada and ucchedavada as two varieties of atmavada.<br /><br /><br />Buddhist Concept of Life<br />The Buddhist perspective on life, suffering and death can never be truly understood unless we understand the Buddhist laws of causality (Paticcasamuppada) and mutation. These two laws are natural laws that operate universally in all physical and mental phenomena. Each "event" or "happening" acts as the cause for the arising of the following event, which then provokes another event. This concept is used to emphasize that life consists of interwoven activities of causes and effects, referred to as the kamma process, which is volitional activity whether mental, verbal or physical. The relationship between cause and effect is that both the earlier and later phases are an integral part of a single process with many psychophysical factors mutually conditioning one another. Life is made possible because of the continuous interaction of these conditioning and conditioned factors. With no beginning and no end point, life is thus considered to be a continuous process of an endless cycle. Death is considered as an integral part of existence and is one phase of this endless cycle and cannot terminate the cycle. This conditioned existence is called samsara and represented in Buddhist art by the Wheel of Life (bhavacakra). <br /><br /><br />Buddhist Concept of the Noble Eightfold Path<br />The Buddha's life itself delineates the perennial conflict between sassatavada and ucchedavada and its transcendence by the Middle Path. The Buddha's lay life as a prince exemplifies one extreme; his life as ascetic practicing severe austerities exemplifies the other. And his attainment of enlightenment by giving up both extremes shows the efficacy of the Middle Path for deliverance from all suffering.<br /><br />The Buddha's first sermon on Setting the Wheel of the Dhamma in Motion (the Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta), is on the ground of avoidance of two extremes of sassatavada and ucchedavada. The Buddha explained the Dhamma in the following words “This is suffering, this is the origin of suffering, this is the cessation of suffering, and this is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.” The Buddha showed the newly discovered path to emancipation, the Noble Eightfold Path (ariya-atthangikamagga) or the majjhima patipada (the Middle Path). This avoids the two extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification. This concept of the Middle Path is not a compromise between the two extremes or an admixture of them. As it transcends the mutual opposition between the two extremes, Middle Path is defined in the same sermon as ubho ante anupagamma (without entering into either extreme). <br /><br /><br />Buddhist Concept of Kammavada<br />Buddhism recognizes all religions as different forms of kammavada, because they all advocate the supremacy of the moral life. In the Kaccayanagotta Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha had proclaimed that by avoiding the two notions of existence and nonexistence he propagated a doctrine by the middle which was referred to as the Buddhist doctrine of dependent origination (paticcasamuppada) and it is through this particular doctrine that Buddhism avoids both sassatavada and ucchedavada. The doctrine of dependent origination is called the doctrine by the middle (majjhima-dhamma) and it is believed that one who discerns dependent origination, discerns the Dhamma (Yo paticcasamuppadam passati so dhammam passati). It is on the basis of this principle that Buddhism explains all its fundamental doctrines, such as the analysis of mind and the theory of perception, kamma, moral order and the nature of the empirical individuality and its samsaric dimension. <br /><br /><br /> <br />Conclusions<br />Buddhism avoids sassatavada by not accepting the theory of existence of self-entity within man which is impervious to change. This is the denial of any kind of spiritual substance within man. Buddhism also avoids ucchedavada, since the human personality is not a pure product of matter but is an uninterrupted and interconnected process of psycho-physical phenomena which does not terminate in death. Although Buddhism does not agree completely with sassatavada, it does not deny survival in the form of rebirth (punabbhava) and moral responsibility (kammavada).<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Bibliography<br />David Levinson. Religion: A cross-cultural dictionary. Oxford University Press, 1998. <br /><br />Davis R., C.A.F. Similes in the Nikayas. Journal of the Pali Text Society (London), 1906-1907, 52.<br /><br />Y. Karunadasa. The Buddhist Critique of Sassatavada and Ucchedavada: The Key to a proper Understanding of the Origin and the Doctrines of early Buddhism. The Middle Way, U.K.1999-2000, 74& 75.<br /><br />Dipak Kumar Barua. Applied Buddhism for the Modern Way of Life. Applied Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern Perspectives. Centre for Buddhist Studies, Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies, Benaras Hindu University. Varanasi, India; 2005: 1-12.<br /><br />Kaza, Stephanie. 2002. Green Buddhism, in When Worlds Converge: What Science and Religion Tell Us about the Story of the Universe and Our Place in It, eds. C.N. Matthews, M.E. Tucker, and P. Hefner, Chicago: Open Court, pp. 293-309.<br /><br />Sumedho Ajahn. The Four Noble Truths. Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc. Amaravati Publications, U.K.<br /><br />Bikkhu Bodhi. The Noble Eightfold Path. Wheel Publication. Buddhist Publication Society. Second Edition (revised) 1994. Kandy, Sri Lanka.<br /><br />Dipak Kumar Barua. Pali Tripitaka and Applied Bibliotherapy. Applied Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern Perspectives. Centre for Buddhist Studies, Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies, Benaras Hindu University. Varanasi, India; 2005: 185-92.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-54236654282978901832009-10-25T05:23:00.001-07:002009-10-25T05:23:32.497-07:00BUDDHIST CONCEPT OF THE DUKKHABUDDHIST CONCEPT OF THE DUKKHA<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br /><br />Hong Kong, 2009 <br />BUDDHIST CONCEPT OF THE DUKKHA<br /><br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br />Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong<br /> <br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />The word “Dukkha” is translated into English as suffering, pain, impermanence, imperfection, emptiness, insubstantiality and unpleasant sensation. But the word Dukkha literally means “bad (duh) to the mouth (kha)”. Hence, dukkha is that which is unsavory, unwanted and unsatisfactory. So, dukkha should be understood as the reaction one has to the characteristics of existence similar to the reaction that an individual has when they taste something bad. According to the Buddha, his entire teaching is intended to explain only two basic things, the origin of suffering (dukkha-samudaya) and its cessation (dukkha-nirodha). Buddhism is primarily concerned with diagnosing and curing existential problems arising from existence. Buddha’s identification of suffering is illustrated by the Four Noble Truths. The argument of the four noble truths (cattari ariya-saccani) aims to identify and recognize the origin of suffering (dukkha), the causes and conditions of suffering (samudaya), cessation of suffering through the removal of the cause of suffering (nirodha), and provide a path to bring about the cessation of suffering (magga). <br />The First Truth refers to human beings’ present predicament (pathological), the Second seeks to explain its origination (diagnostical), the Third refers to the complete elimination of suffering (ideal) and the Fourth shows the way to its realization (prescriptive). Because of the logical sequence among the Four Noble Truths, the significance of each cannot be understood in a context from where the other three are excluded. Each assumes its significance in relation to the other three. Hence, it is emphasized that the fact of suffering is to be thoroughly understood (parinneyya), the cause of suffering is to be removed (pahatabba), the cessation of suffering is to be realized (sacchikatabba) and the path that leads to the cessation of suffering is to be developed (bhavetabba).<br /><br /><br />According to Buddhism, Dukkha is a fundamental concept in Buddha’s analysis of our very existence. In Buddhism, emphasis is given more to mental suffering than physical. The two main reasons of suffering in human life are (a) our everlasting desire of attachment to various material things or ideological concepts and this later progress to possessiveness and greed, ultimately leading to (b) cravings (tanhā). All Buddhist teachings converge on the problem of suffering and its solution through both the “graduated talk” (anupubbi-katha) and the “exalting discourse” (samukkamsika-desana). The “graduated talk” initiates the teachings of the Buddha and gradually prepares the mind of the listener as a proper receptacle (kallacitta, muducitta) for its proper understanding of the following deliverance of the “exalting discourse”.<br /><br /><br />Relevance of Suffering or “Dukkha” in Buddhism<br />The Buddha begins the four noble truths by asserting that conditioned existence is thoroughly unsatisfactory (dukkha). In other words, our existence is thoroughly marked by suffering. The Buddha had proclaimed that life itself is suffering and therefore makes dukkha the first of the four noble truths of suffering.<br /><br />The Buddhist definition of suffering are based on trauma of birth, the pathology of sickness, the morbidity of decrepitude, the phobia of death, to be separated from what is pleasant, to be associated with what is unpleasant and impeded will or unfulfilled expectations. The comprehensive summing up of what is actual suffering in true sense is described as impeded will or unfulfilled expectations.<br /><br /><br />The Five Aggregates or “Khandhas”<br />According to Buddhism, each individual living being could be analyzed into five component groups called “aggregates” or “Khandhas”. These are corporeality/materiality (rupa), feelings (vedana), perceptions (sanna), mental formations or volitional activities (samkhara) and consciousness (vinnana). These are actually considered as five aggregates of grasping or attachment (panca upadanakkhandha) and they constitute our human personality. So, these five aggregates of grasping are rightly characterized as suffering. They can be a source of suffering when they become objects of grasping (upadana). This process of grasping manifests itself in three forms on egocentric principle through which the three-fold self-identification that the idea of “mine”, “I am” and “myself” arises. These details are as follows:<br />(a) This is mine (etam mama) – which is due to craving (tanhā)<br />(b) This I am (esoham asmi) – which is due to conceit (mana) <br />(c) This is myself (eso me atta) – which is due to mistaken belief in soul entity (ditthi)<br /><br />Here, we need to keep in mind that Buddhism actually believes that life itself is suffering rather than just a mere concept that there is suffering in life. The samsara continues as long as the process of self-identification persists. When the process of self-identification is eliminated, suffering too comes to an end which is realized as the attainment of “Nibbana”. So, we need to realize that as long as the process of self-identification persists, there is suffering. The moment it stops, the samsaric process too comes to an end and together with it all suffering too comes to an end.<br /><br />Types of Human Suffering According to Buddhism<br />At the most elemental level, suffering appears as physical pain and oppression. This is represented by the birth trauma (jati), the pathology of sickness (vyadhi) and the morbidity of decrepitude (jara). The fundamental sufferings in our day to day life could also be added to this list as hunger, thirst, privation and accident. The next level is suffering of psychological experience which is described as the association with what is unpleasant, or dissociation from what is pleasant or impeded will or frustrated desire. The third or the deepest level is anguish or disharmony, which seems to be at the very core of human life. It is this level which Buddhism takes into consideration when it proclaims that the five aggregates of grasping are themselves suffering.<br /><br /><br />The concept of dukkha includes mainly three aspects: dukkha dukkha (ordinary suffering) viparināma dukkha (suffering produced by change), and sankhāra dukkha (suffering from conditioned states). The Buddha justifies his response to the human situation as dukkha by referencing these three aspects of human existence: he first defines pain in the world as the suffering of suffering, or what can be described as normal bodily suffering. Secondly, he suggests that pain results from change because there is no one satisfactory state of existence that is permanent, and finally the third aspect, no one can ever be content in one state because human beings are conditioned by their ever-changing environment. This definition also entails the concept of dependent origination that states that our existence is contingent upon other existences of life in nature, and is thus not self created, thereby also bringing about suffering. <br /><br /><br />Concept of Attachment and Craving (tanhā)<br />Underlying dukkha is the notion of desire. Desire is the root of all suffering because it causes individuals to get attached and grasp and cling to objects and experiences of existence (views). It is this grasping that result in pain; when an object or experience is removed from consciousness. It is desire / craving or tanhā, which ultimately causes suffering. But grasping or attachment to views, irrespective of right view or wrong view, is considered to be more harmful than craving for material objects. The present day terrorist activities are due to our attachment to wrong views. Within the Pāli canon tanhā is given three aspects: craving for sensuality, or sensual pleasures, craving for becoming or existing, and craving for non-becoming or non-existing. The final two definitions of the concept tanhā demonstrate Buddhism’s historical response to the positions of sasstavada and ucchedavada - the ideologies of eternalism and annihilation. <br /><br />According to Buddhism, both of these positions must be transcended; one must not be attached to the ideology of death or the ideology of eternalism. Both would result in dukkha, as they are based on false interpretation of a self-identity or the self/soul. Thus, one can overcome the dukkha by overcoming self-centered desire, through the understanding of conditioned origination as the cause of impermanence. These are key concepts in developing Buddhist insight that leads to the cessation of suffering and the attainment of unconditioned states. <br /><br /><br />Buddhist Attitude towards Suffering<br />The Buddhist attitude towards suffering is analyzed as the four possible attitudes in respect of suffering. These are:<br />(a) The first one is denial of suffering in the face of all evidence, which is considered as sheer optimism<br />(b) The second is “passive resignation” and acceptance of a state of things which are believed by an individual as inevitable. This is considered as out-and-out pessimism<br />(c) The third is “camouflage of suffering by the help of pompous sophistry or by gratuitously attaching to it in an attempt to diminish its bitterness. This could be interpreted as rationalization of suffering.<br />(d) The fourth is the war against suffering, accompanied by the faith in the possibility of overcoming it. This might be considered as most rational and the most sane attitude to suffering.<br /><br />The Buddha adopted the fourth attitude towards suffering, i.e., by declaring a war against suffering, which was accompanied by the faith in the possibility of overcoming it. This explains why he never made any attempts to interpret suffering. For any interpretation of suffering implies an attempt to rationalize it. Rationalization of suffering in turn, implies an attempt to “hide its bitterness” on spiritual or other grounds which would lead to escapism in the face of suffering. This would eventually lead to postponement of finding a true solution to suffering. The act of interpretation or rationalization of suffering does not lead to the transformation of aversion to dispassion, cessation of suffering and calming down of mental faculties and instill the desire for higher knowledge for awakening or to attain the Nibbana.<br /><br />The Buddha had used the simile or analogy of a poisoned arrow (salla-viddha) to explain his attitude towards suffering. This explains what one should do and one should not do in a situation when he finds a person shot by a poisoned arrow. The Buddha has advised that in such a situation, one must not waste his precious time by asking such meaningless questions as to who shot the arrow, what is his name, caste etc. On moral grounds, one should not also insist that he would not get the poisoned arrow removed until he knows the answers to these questions. The Buddha repeatedly emphasized the very fact that all his life he had preached only two basic things, which are origination of suffering and the cessation of suffering.<br />Conclusion<br />Buddhism is concerned with the problem of suffering it is because it is more concerned with its solution. If it identifies all sources and occasions of suffering, it is in order to ensure that happiness is based on a sure and solid foundation. Thus, even the jhanic experience obtained by concentrating the mind and the delights of heavenly experience which for all practical purposes may be described as instances of supreme happiness are also identified as suffering. In the Dhammacakkappavattana the Buddha states that everything pertaining to the existence of an unenlightened being is duhkka. It is only possible to go beyond dukkha is by going beyond the world of samsara, which is considered to be a state that is composed of conditioned existence and impermanence. <br /><br />Thus an individual can only overcome dukkha if he lives in a state that is not fraught with impermanence. But the theoretical understanding of the Dukkha is not enough for what we know; we need to put into our day to day practice. The understanding of dukkha must be cultivated through the practice of bhāvanā. Through bhāvanā one internalizes the intellectual understanding of dependent origination, impermanence, the Noble Eightfold Path, and anatta. One way this is done is by training the mind to no longer grasp at any object.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-89537803559502912082009-10-25T05:09:00.000-07:002009-10-25T05:15:35.216-07:00THE CONCEPT OF “KAMMA” IN BUDDHISMTHE CONCEPT OF “KAMMA” IN BUDDHISM<br /><br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br /><br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /> <br />THE CONCEPT OF “KAMMA” IN BUDDHISM<br /><br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br />Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br /><br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />The term “Kamma” literally means any action, or any kind of work. But in Buddhist philosophy, it means moral action and is defined as volition, conation, intention, or motivation. Here, it is the intention of an act that is emphasized as moral action even if the action is not executed at present.<br /><br /><br />The concept of “Kamma” in Buddhism<br />According to Buddhism, the “Kamma” can manifest in three different ways. These are (a) Kaya-“Kamma” = bodily or physical “Kamma”, (b) Vaci-”Kamma” = vocal “Kamma” and (c) Mano-”Kamma” = mental “Kamma”.<br /><br />There are two main kinds of conditions which are causative factors of “Kamma”. These are (a) External stimulation and (b) Conscious motivation and unconscious motives. The external stimulation is through the six senses. This refers to sensory contact (excitation) of both physical and mental origination. The reference is to our contact with the external world and mental imagination within us. According to Buddhism the stream of consciousness (vinnana-sota) consists of both conscious and unconscious aspects. One’s conscious activities merge into the unconscious and accumulate there in potential form. They later begin to influence conscious behavior. These hidden psychological dispositions or impulses are called anusaya (latent dispositions, or dormant proclivities) or asava (flow, secretions).<br /><br /><br />The seven latent dispositions of “Kamma”:<br />Kama-raga (the innate desire for sensual gratification)<br />Bhava-raga (desire for being, desire for self-perpetuation)<br />Patigha (aggression, predisposition to acts of violence)<br />Ditthi (beliefs and various perspectives, all based on ego-centricity)<br />Vicikiccha (doubts, lack of clarity, diffidence)<br />Mana (conceit which manifests as feelings of equality, superiority, and inferiority)<br />Avijja (ignorance, that is, of the nature of actuality)<br /><br />What is deposited in the inner recesses of our mind is all gathered through our various lives in the samsaric process. Therefore, their presence cannot be explained with reference to the present life alone.<br /><br /><br /> <br />The Role of “Kamma” in Individual Existence<br /> If we confine our attention to the correlations between “Kamma” and its effect, we cannot say that “Kamma”-conditionality is deterministic. If we believe that all our sufferings in life are due to past “Kamma” and nothing could be changed in this present life then the living of a holy life would be rendered as meaningless. But if we believe that just as a person performs a deed of which the consequence is to be experienced by him and thus he experiences its consequence in his present life. This would make the holy life meaningful and there will be an opportunity for the complete destruction of suffering in this present life.<br /><br />In the case of a person who has not properly cultivated his character, mind and intellect, even a trifling evil deed leads him to a lower destiny. On the other hand, in the case of a person of opposite (good) character, the consequences of such trifling acts sometimes may not appear at all. This could be explained by the fact that if a person puts a lump of salt into a little cup of water, that water becomes undrinkable, but if the same person puts a lump of salt into the river Ganges that mass of water does not become undrinkable.<br /><br /><br />Buddhist rejection of “Kammic” determinism<br />Buddhism does not say that everything is due to past “Kamma” and refutes the erroneous view that whatever we experience is due to past “Kamma”. This is because of the fact that owing to previous action men will become murderers, thieves, unchaste, liars, slanderers, babblers, covetous, malicious, and perverse in view. Thus for those who fall back on the past “Kamma”, there is neither any desire to do, nor any effort to do, nor any necessity to do a good moral deed, or abstain from undertaking a bad action. So, the present “Kamma” (volition) is not the effect of a previous “Kamma”. If it were it would lead to a theory of kammic determinism (sabbam pubbekata-hetu). According to the Abhidhamma, “Kamma” is only one of the 24 conditions that explain the structure of individual existence.<br /><br />According to Buddhism there are five orders or processes (niyamas) which operate in the physical and mental realms. These are (a) Utu Niyama (the physical inorganic order), (b) Bija Niyama (the physical organic order), (c) “Kamma” Niyama (the moral order), (d) Citta Niyama (the psychological order) and (e) Dhamma Niyama (the spiritual order).<br /><br /><br />The outcome of “Kamma”<br />The outcome of “Kamma”, which is called vipaka, is threefold (a) In this life (dittheva dhamme), (b) In the next life (upapajje) and (c) In future lives (apare va pariyaye). We are our own creators as well as our own enemies. This law of “Kamma” explains the problem of suffering, the mystery of so-called fate and predestination in other religions and the inequality of mankind.<br /><br /> There are four kinds of “Kamma” and vipaka (result). These are (a) Dark “Kamma” with dark results (kanha-”Kamma” and kanha vipaka), (b) Bright “Kamma” with bright results (sukka-”Kamma” with sukka-vipaka), (c) “Kamma” that is both dark and bright with dark and bright results (kanha-sukka) “Kamma” and kanha-sukkavipaka) and (d) “Kamma” that is neither dark nor bright with results that are neither dark nor bright. <br />It is this fourth category that leads to the cessation of “Kamma”. This is called “Nibbana” which is “the cessation of “Kamma”” (“Kamma”-nirodha) and the Noble Eightfold Path is called the Path leading to the cessation of “Kamma” (“Kamma”-nirodha-gamini-patipada).<br /><br /><br />Conclusion<br />The Buddhist conception of “Kamma” has nothing to do with predestination. That which we have done in the past has made us what we are now. That which we are in the process of doing now, this day, this minute, is making what we shall be in the future. The future will be a process of becoming largely what we make it. It is always being shaped, but never finished. There is no evidence of the future being predetermined independently of us; but we do know that we largely determine it by our own acts. <br /><br />There is no fixed future, but only possible futures which depend largely on our present thoughts and actions. Just as we have been making ourselves in all our previous lives, it is now the time for us to determine our future. There is no god that can help us or stop us from doing so. Our present good “Kamma” can, if sufficiently powerful, completely change the results of our past bad deeds. The past gives us certain tendencies and latencies. It is for us to fashion our future though our moral action, determination and motivation to execute right actions to make a significant contribution towards the society.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-57806809816140020852009-10-25T05:08:00.000-07:002009-10-25T05:09:24.415-07:00BUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS MODERN IMPLICATIONSBUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS<br />MODERN IMPLICATIONS<br /><br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br />Hong Kong, 2009 <br />BUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS MODERN IMPLICATIONS<br />ANKUR BARUA<br />Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong<br /> <br /><br />Introduction<br />Mental health is an integral component of health that helps a person to realize his or her own relational abilities using the psychomotor, affective and cognitive domains. With a balanced mental disposition, one becomes more effective in coping with the stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and attains better capability to make a positive contribution to his or her community. <br /><br />The considerable interest is expressed by people of various countries in recent years on Buddhist psychology. This is due to the fact that there is a great deal of psychological content in Buddhist teachings. Some parts of the Buddhist canonical texts deal with explicit psychological theorizing and many of the others present psychological assumptions as well as discusses on topics on psychological relevance. In Buddhism, there are three synonymous words are used to refer to mind. These are “Citta” meaning consciousness, “Mano” meaning mind and “Vinnana” meaning cognition. <br /><br />The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains a highly systematized psychological account of human behavior and mind. The practice of Buddhism, as a religion and a way of life, involves much in terms of psychological change. The ultimate religious goal of the arahant state requires major psychological changes. The path towards the achievement of this goal, the Noble Eightfold Path, involves steps related to right thought and right understanding which are regarded as psychological. This goal is attainable only through one's own efforts, thinking and behavior. <br /><br />Buddhism rejects the concept of God, so there is no real God to whom one can turn to for one's own salvation. The Buddha too never claimed to be able to ensure any of his followers, the attainment of this goal. He explicitly stated that he was only a teacher who could show the way. The actual task of achieving the goal was up to each individual's own efforts. The ultimate goal of Buddhism is to liberate the mind. In order to liberate the mind, it is necessary to develop the mind and know the mind. <br /><br /><br />The Mind-Body Relationship<br />The “Nama” in “nama-rupa” is a collective name for the following five mental factors namely, feeling (vedana), perception (sanna), volition (cetana), sense-impression (phassa) and mind’s advertence, or attention (manasikara). The “rupa” in “nama-rupa” refers to organic matter (the matter that enters into the composition of the living being). So, “rupa” is a material form that refers to the four primary elements of matter (mahabhuta) and secondary material phenomena that depend on the primary elements (upada rupa).<br /> Buddhism avoids the dualistic theory which asserts that mental and material realities are strictly separate entities. It also avoids the monistic theory which maintains that mental and material realities are reducible to one, either to mind (Idealism) or matter (Materialism). According to Buddhism, the relationship between mind and body is one of mutual dependence or a reciprocal conditionality. Consciousness is neither a soul nor the quality of a soul because the body is seen to persist for a limited period of time, while the consciousness which is also known as mind or intelligence, arises as one thing, ceases as another, in a continuous process throughout life.<br /><br />Analysis of the affective, cognitive, and volitional dimensions of every experience (psychological) are done by the mind with the help of five aggregates which are Rupa (corporeality / materiality), Vedana (feelings), Sanna (perceptions), Samkhara (mental formations) and Vinnana (consciousness). The six corresponding sense objects to the six sense organs: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind are the visual form, sound, smell, taste, touch and mental objects, which give rise to the six kinds of sense consciousness.<br /><br /><br />The Early Buddhist Theory of Perception<br />The visual consciousness arises depending on the eye and visible form. The correlation of the three is sensory contact (impingement). Depending on sensory contact, there arises feeling. What one feels, one perceives. What one perceives, one investigates. What one investigates, one conceptually proliferates. What one conceptually proliferates, one begins to assail and overwhelm the percipient individual. The different stages of the perceptual (cognitive) process are eye-consciousness (cakkhu-vinnana), sensory contact (phassa), feeling (vedana), perception (sanna), investigation (vitakka) and conceptual proliferation (papanca). <br /><br />Abhidhamma is based on the analysis of the apparently continuous stream of consciousness into a series of discrete, evanescent cognitive events, and the analysis of each cognitive event into bare consciousness called citta and a group of mental factors called “cetasikas”. The “cetasikas” perform more specific tasks in the act of cognition.<br /><br /><br />The Basic Principles of Buddhist Psychology<br />According to Buddhism, the world is lead by the mind and the world is activated by the mind (e.g., Cittena niyati loko, Cittena parikissati). Since Buddhism discarded the concept of a soul, it had explained the sense functions, such as vision, hearing, etc. without reference to the idea of any soul. <br /><br />Consciousness does not arise without any condition. Consciousness always springs up in dependence on a duality. For example, in case of eye consciousness, it is eye, acting as the visual organ is impermanent. It is constantly changing and becoming-other. Accordingly, the visible objects also are impermanent and they too are changing and becoming-other. This is the transient, fugitive duality of eye-cum-visible objects. Since, eye-consciousness arises by depending on an impermanent condition, it is also impermanent. The coincidence, concurrence and confluence of these factors (called contact) and those other mental phenomena arising as a result of them, are also impermanent. Consciousness has no independent existence of any sort. It always exists in conjunction with the other four aggregates into which the individual is analyzed. <br /><br /><br />Buddhism and Modern Psychology<br />Buddhist psychology is pre-scientific, in a sense that it developed prior to, and outside the context of, modern Western science. But it offers hypotheses which could be brought within the realm of scientific inquiry. The modern scientific psychology during its process of evolution would incorporate ideas, concepts and techniques from Buddhist way of judgment and evaluation. Buddhist psychology would thus contribute towards the further expansion and development of modern psychology. Within the broad limits of psychology, it is indeed possible that some areas of modern psychology, which are able to derive from or have in common with Buddhist psychology, may develop and flourish with close interaction. Buddhist psychology is likely to keep interacting with modern psychology, rather than achieving integration with it. During this interaction, it will continue to make a contribution to both theory and practice in different areas with varying degrees of significance. This contribution is likely to be particularly significant in the area of psychological therapy in the form of Jhana or meditation. The transpersonal school of psychology had started incorporating a good deal of Buddhism and other ideas related to personal development and self-motivation.<br /><br /><br />Conclusion<br />Though there is no 'Self' in this psychology, but Buddhist Psychology is very much compassionately concerned with individual persons. It is possible to envisage that some integration between certain aspects of Buddhist psychology and parallel areas of modern psychology might be fruitfully affected. The most important thing that Buddhist psychology offers to the modern psychology is a framework of a different way of visualizing and evaluating the phenomenological and personal experience. Buddhist psychology as a discipline, distinct from Buddhism as a religion, can make greater worldwide appeal and significant impact on the minds of the common people.<br /> <br />Bibliography<br /><br />The World Health Organization. World Health Report: Mental Health: New understanding New Hope. Geneva: The institute; 2001.<br /><br />Ward, C. (1983). The role and status of psychology in developing nations: A Malaysian case study. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 36, 73-76.<br /><br />Webb, R. (1975). An analysis of the Pall canon. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.<br />Feist, J., (1994). Theories of Personality,3rd Ed. New York: Harcourt Brace. <br />Gunartana, H. (venerable), (1991). Mindfulnessin Plain English. Boston: Wisdom Publications. <br />Hall, C.S. and Lindzey, G., (1978). Theories of Personality, 3rd Ed. New York: John Wiley &Sons. <br />Y. Karunadasa. The Early Buddhist Psychology. The Centre of Buddhist Studies. The University of Hong Kong. Hong Kong, October 2008.<br /><br />Shapiro, D. (1982). Overview: Clinical and physiological comparison of medication and other self-control strategies. American Journal of Psychiatry. 139, 267-274.<br /><br />Singh, R., & Oberhummer, I. (1980). Behavior therapy within a setting of Karma Yoga. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 11, 135-141.<br />James, W., (1890/1964). The self. In C. Gordon & K.J. Gergen (Eds.) The self in social interaction (pp 41-49). New York: Wiley. <br />Paranjpe, A.C. (1995). Is the person missing from theories of personality? In I. Lubek, R. van Hezewijk, G. Pheterson, & C. Tolman (Eds.), Recent trends in theoretical psychology Vol. 4, pp. 138-143. New York: Springer. <br />Rhys Davids, C.A.F. (1900). A Buddhist manual of psychological ethics. (Translation of Dhammasangani). London: Pali Text Society. Katz, N. (Ed.) (1983). Buddhist and Western psychology. Boulder, Co: Prajna Press.<br /><br />Kazdin, A.E. (1974). Self-monitoring and behavior change. In M.J. Mahoney & C.E. Thoresen (Eds.), Self-control: Power to the Person. Monterey, CA: Brooks Cole.<br /><br />Kishimoto, K. (1985). Self-awakening psychotherapy for neurosis: Attaching importance to oriented thought, especially Buddhist thought. Psychologia, 28, 90-100.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-26236700934995476072009-10-25T04:51:00.001-07:002009-10-25T04:51:53.637-07:00PĀLI FOR BEGINNERSThis is a preview version. To order the complete book, please visit “Bookstore” of website: http://www.unibook.com <br />Or Click on: http://www.unibook.com/unibook/site/bookdetail/?bookid=8371<br /><br />PĀLI FOR BEGINNERS<br /><br /><br /><br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br /><br />MBBS, MD (Community Medicine), MBAIT, MBuddStud (Hong Kong)<br /><br /><br /><br /> <br /><br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /> <br />Background: The author had graduated with distinction from the University of Hong Kong (MBuddStud, 2009). He had also completed two other Master Degrees, one from Sikkim Manipal University (MBAIT, 2007) while the other from Manipal University (MBBS-2000, MD in Community Medicine - 2003) and presently working in professional field.<br /><br /><br />First Publication on 26th August 2009<br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br /><br />Copyright © Ankur Barua<br /><br /><br />Address for communication:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,<br />Salt Lake City, Sector-2,<br />Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br />Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)<br /> <br />Contents<br />Items Page No.<br /><br />Acknowledgements 04<br />Preface 05<br />Pāli Alphabets 06<br />Pronunciation of Pāli Alphabets 08<br />Pāli Nouns, Pronouns and Adjectives 11<br />Declension of Nouns 22<br />Declension of Pronouns 54<br />Declension of Numerals 66<br />Pāli Verbs and Their Uses 72<br />Derivation of Pāli Verbs According to the Tenses and Voices in Third Person Singular Number 76<br />Pāli Indeclinables 81<br />Pāli Phrases From Texts 87<br />References 95<br /> <br />Acknowledgements<br /><br />I wish to express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to Ven. Dr. Aniruddha, Visiting Professor of Buddhist Studies at the Centre of Buddhist Studies in the University of Hong Kong for his constant encouragement, constructive criticism, personal attention and valuable guidance throughout this work.<br /><br />I acknowledge gratefully Ven. Dr. Jing Yin, Professor of Buddhist Studies and Director of the Centre of Buddhist Studies in the University of Hong Kong for his kind support, encouragement and timely advice during the compilation of this text book.<br /><br />I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my beloved father Dr. Dipak Kumar Barua, who was the earlier Dean of the Faculty Council for Postgraduate Studies in Education, Journalism & Library Science in the University of Calcutta (1987-1991) and the Director of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda (1996-1999) for his technical guidance and valuable advice on various aspects of the Pāli language. <br /><br />I would also like to convey my sincere thanks to my beloved mother Mrs. Dipa Barua and Ms. Mary Anne Basilio for their constant assistance, keen interest and support during this study.<br /> <br />Preface<br /><br />The orgin of the Pāli language is rooted in the Prakrits, the vernacular languages, used in northern India during the Middle period of Indian linguistic evolution. Though Pāli is closely related to Sanskrit, but its grammar and structure are simpler. The Traditional Theravadins regard Pāli as the language in which the Buddha (historical – Sakyamuni Buddha) had given his discourses. However, in the opinion of leading linguistic scholars, Pāli was probably a synthetic language created from several vernaculars to make the Buddhist texts comprehensible to Buddhist monks living in different parts of northern India. Pāli language was also used to preserve the Buddhist canon of the Theravada Buddhist tradition, which is regarded as the oldest complete collection of Buddhist texts surviving in an Indian language. As Theravada Buddhism spread to other parts of southern Asia, Pāli as the language of the Buddhist texts spread along with it. Thus, Pāli became a sacred language in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. Pāli has been used almost exclusively for Buddhist teachings, although many other religious and literary works related to Buddhism were also written in Pāli . This book is designed to provide the basics of Pāli grammar and vocabulary to enable the reader to understand the discourses of the Buddha in original form. <br />Dr. Ankur Barua<br /> <br />PĀLI ALPHABETS<br /><br /><br />The Pāli Alphabet consists of 41 letters, 8 vowels and 33 consonants:<br /><br />8 Vowels (Sara): a, aa, i, ii, u, uu, e, o.<br /><br />33 Consonants (Vya~njana) <br />a) Gutturals [ka.n.thaja]: k, kh, g, gh, 'n <br />(ka group [ka vagga])<br />b) Palatals [taaluja]: c, ch, j, jh, ~n <br />(ca group [ca vagga])<br />c) Cerebrals [mu.dhaja]: .t, .th, .d, .dh, .n <br />(.ta group [.t vagga])<br />d) Dentals [dantaja]: t, th, d, dh, n <br />(ta group [ta vagga])<br />e) Labials [o.t.thaja]: p, ph, b, bh, m <br />(pa group [pa vagga])<br /> <br />The following consonants are known as semi-vowels:<br /><br />Palatal [taaluja]: y<br />Cerebral [mu.dhaja]: r<br />Dental [dantaja]: l<br />Dental and Labial [danta o.t.thaja]: v<br /><br /><br />The special consonants:<br />Dental (sibilant) [dantaja]: s<br />Aspirate [kan.thaja]: h <br />Cerebral [mu.dhaja]: .l <br />Niggahita: .m<br /><br /> <br />PRONUNCIATION OF PĀLI ALPHABETS<br /><br />Pāli is a phonetic language and each alphabet has its own characteristic sound. <br />Pāli Vowels: <br />8 Vowels (Sara): a, aa, i, ii, u, uu, e, o<br />a is pronounced like ‘u’ in but <br />aa is pronounced like ‘a’ in art<br />i is pronounced like ‘I' in pin <br />ii is pronounced like ‘I’ in machine <br />u is pronounced like ‘u’ in put <br />uu is pronounced like ‘u’ in rule <br />e is pronounced like ‘e’ in ten<br />ee is pronounced like ‘a’ in fate <br />o is pronounced like ‘o’ in hot <br />oo is pronounced like ‘o’ in note <br /> <br />Pāli Consonants<br />33 Consonants (Vya~njana) <br />k is pronounced like ‘k’ in key <br />g is pronounced like ‘g’ in get <br />'n is pronounced like ‘ng’ in ring <br />c is pronounced like ‘ch’ in rich <br />j is pronounced like ‘j’ in jug <br />~n is pronounced like ‘gn’ in signor <br />.t is pronounced like ‘t’ in not<br />.d is pronounced like ‘d’ in hid <br />.n is pronounced like ‘n’ in hint <br />p is pronounced like ‘p’ in lip <br />b is pronounced like ‘b’ in rib <br />m is pronounced like ‘m’ in him <br />y is pronounced like ‘y’ in yard<br />r is pronounced like ‘r’ in rat <br />l is pronounced like ‘l’ in sell<br />v is pronounced like ‘v’ in vile <br />s is pronounced like ‘s’ in sit <br />h is pronounced like ‘h’ in hut <br />.l is pronounced like ‘l’ in felt <br />.m is pronounced like ‘ng’ in sing<br /><br />The vowels " e " and " o " are always long, except when followed by a double consonant; e.g., ettha, o.t.tha.<br />The fifth consonant of each group is called a "nasal".<br />There is no difference between the pronunciation of " 'n " and ".m". The former never stands at the end, but is always followed by a consonant of its group.<br />The dentals " t " and " d " are pronounced with the tip of the tongue placed against the front upper teeth.<br />The aspirates " kh ", " gh ", ".th ", ".dh ", " th ", " dh ", " ph ", " bh ", are pronounced with " h " sound immediately following; e.g., in blockhead, pighead, cat-head, log-head, etc., where the " h " in each is combined with the preceding consonant in pronunciation.<br /> <br />PĀLI NOUNS, PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES<br /><br />In English there are 8 parts of speech. They are all found in Pāli , but the Pāli Grammararians do not classify them in the same way. Their general classification is:<br />(1) Nāma = Noun / Pronoun / Adjective<br />(2) Ākhyāta = Verb<br />(3) Upasagga = Prefix<br />(4) Nipāta = Indeclinable Particle (conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, present participle, past participle, future passive participle)<br />Pronouns and adjectives are included in the first group with the nouns. Adjectives are treated as nouns because they are declined like nouns.<br />Conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs and all other indeclinables are included in the fourth group.<br /><br />Gender, Number and Case for all pronouns and adjectives should be in agreement with the corresponding noun. <br /><br />There are in Pāli as in English three GENDERS and two NUMBERS. These are –<br />GENDER: (1) Pullińga = Masculine<br /> (2) Itthilińga = Feminine<br /> (3) Napuŋsakalińga = Neuter<br /><br />NUMBER: (1) Ekavacana = Singular <br /> (2) Bahuvacana = Pleural<br /><br /><br />InPāli , there are eight CASES namely:<br />(1) Pațhamā = Nominative = Subject<br />(2) Dutiyā = Accusative = Object (To / Towards the motion of movement)<br />(3) (A) Tatiyā = Ablative of Agent = By / With / Through<br /> (B) Karaņa = Ablative of Instrument = By / With / Through<br />(4) Catutthī = Dative = For<br />(5) Pañcamī = Ablative of Separation = From <br />(6) Chațțhī = Possessive or Genetive = Of<br />(7) Sattamī = Locative = In / On / At / Upon <br />(8) Ālapana = Vocative = Oh! <br /><br /> <br />The Ablative in English is here divided into Tatiyā, Karaņa and Pañchamī. But, as tatiyā and Karaņa always have similar forms both of them are shown under “instrumental”. Where only the “Ablative” is given then it must be understand that all the three forms of the Ablative are included.<br /><br />Nouns which denote males are masculine, those which denote females are feminine, but nouns which denote inanimate things and qualities are not always neuter, e.g., rukkha (tree), canda (moon) are masculine. Nadī (river), latā (vine), pañña (wisdom) are feminine. Dhana (wealth), citta (mind) are neuter. Two words denoting the same thing may be, sometimes, in different genders; pāsāņa and silā are both synonymopus for a stone, but the former is masculine and the latter is feminine. One word, without changing its form, may possess two or more genders e.g., geha (house) is masculine and neuter while kucchi (belly) is masculine and feminine. Noun (subject) and verb in a sentence should be in agreement in terms of “person” and “number”.<br /><br />Therefore, it should be remembered that gender in Pāli is a grammatical distinction existing in words it is called GRAMMATICAL GENDER.<br />All the Nouns, Pronouns and Adjectives are declined according to their corresponding Gender, Number, Case and the stem ending form.<br /> <br />EXAMPLES OF NOUNS CORRESPONSING TO THEIR DECLENSIONS<br /> STEM ENDING FORM NOUN EXAMPLE<br /> <br /> <br />MASCULINE a nara Gonā pāsāņe tițțhanti<br /> i aggi Dīpayo girimhi vasanti<br /> ī pakkhī Mantī hatthinaŋ āruhissati<br /> u garu Garu mayhaŋ susūnaŋ ucchavo adadi<br /> ū vidū Viduno kulavato gehaŋ gacchiŋsu<br /> FEMININE ā vanitā Vanitāyao nāvāhi gańgāyaŋ gacchantu<br /> i bhūmi Yuvatīnaŋ pitaro ațaviyā āgamma bhuñjitvā sayiŋsu<br /> ī ārī āriyo sakhīhi saha vāpiŋ gantvā nahāyissanti<br /> u dhenu/ mātu Dāsiyā mātā dhenuŋ rajjuyā bandhitvā ānesi<br />NEUTER a nayana Dhanavanto bhātarānaŋ dhanaŋ dātuŋ na icchanti<br /> i atthi Mayaŋ gāviyā khīraŋ, khīramha dadhiŋ, dadhimhā sappiñ ca labhāma<br /> u cakkhu Amhākaŋ pitaro tadā vanamhā madhuŋ āharitvā dadhina saha bhuñjiŋsu<br /> <br />PRONOUNS <br />Pronouns in Pāli are also treated as Adjectives and they should be declined using the same Gender, Number and Case as the corresponding Noun.<br />Two personal pronouns like “Amha” and “Tumha” are declined separately because of their frequent usage. These are of the common gender and have no vocative form. We need to keep in mind that “te”, “me”, “vo” and “no” should not be used at the beginning of a sentence. They can also sometimes be used as adjectives while qualifying the nouns.<br />Example: Ayaŋ sīho tamhā vanamhā nikkhamma imasmiŋ magge țhatvā ekaŋ itthiŋ māresi.<br /><br />EXAMPLES OF PRONOUNS CORRESPONSING TO THE DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS<br /> STEM ENDING FORM NOUN EXAMPLE OF PRONOUNS<br /><br />MASCULINE a nara So gonā imasmiŋ pāsāņe tițțhanti<br /> i aggi Ime dīpayo tasmiŋ girismiŋ vasanti<br /> ī pakkhī Mantī yaŋ hatthinaŋ āruhissati?<br /> u garu Garu mayhaŋ susūnaŋ ucchavo adadi<br /> ū vidū Yo viduno taŋ gehaŋ gacchiŋsu?<br /> FEMININE ā vanitā Aññāyo vanitāyao nāvāhi itarāyaŋ gańgāyaŋ gacchantu<br /> i bhūmi Katāmānāŋ Yuvatīnaŋ pitaro aparāya ațaviyā āgamma bhuñjitvā sayiŋsu<br /> ī ārī Āriyo sabbāhi sakhīhi saha aññataraŋ vāpiŋ gantvā nahāyissanti<br /> u dhenu/ mātu Tassā dāsiyā mātā sabbaŋ dhenuŋ rajjuyā bandhitvā ānesi<br />NEUTER a nayana Dhanavanto tassa ubhayānaŋ bhātarānaŋ imaŋ dhanaŋ dātuŋ na icchanti<br /> i atthi Mayaŋ sabbābhi gāvībhi khīraŋ labhāma<br /> u cakkhu Amhākaŋ sabbo pitaro tadā vanamhā madhuŋ āharitvā pivatiŋsu<br /> <br />ADJECTIVES<br />Adjectives add special quality and qualify the Nouns. They are declined by using the same Gender, Number and Case as their cprresponding Noun.<br />In a given sentence, the Adjectives should be in agreement with the corresponding Noun in terms of Gender, Number and Case. Ordinary adjectives are “seta” (white), “rassa” (short), “mahanta” (big) and so on.<br />Example: Ratto goņo rassāni tiņāni khādati<br /> Setā kaññā nīlam vatthaŋ paridahati<br /><br />NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES<br />The declension of verbal and pronominal adjectives and those ending in “vantu” and “mantu” are different from the other adjectives that qualify the nouns. Adjectival Nouns ending in “vantu” and “mantu” are differently declined from the above masculine nouns ending in “u”. They are often used as adjectives, but they become substantives when they stand alone in the place of the person or the thing they qualify. These are declined in all genders. In the feminine, they change their final vowel, e.g., guņavatī, sīlavatī, guavantī, sīlavantī. Those ending in “mantu” should be declined as “cakkhumā”, “cakkhumanto”, “cakkhumatā” and so on.<br />As the adjectives qualify nouns, which are of different genders and numbers, they must agree with their substantives in gender, number and case. All adjectives are declined like nouns in various genders, numbers and cases according to their stem endings. For example, “dīgha”, “rassa” and others, which are ending in “a” of the above list are declined in the masculine like “nara”, and in the neuter like “nayana”. In the feminine, they lengthen their last vowel and are declined like “vanitā”. For example, “setā kaññā rattaŋ vatthaŋ paridahati” which means that “a fair girl wears a red cloth”. Here, “setā” (white / fair) is the adjective of “kaññā”(girl) in feminine gender, singular number and nominative case; so “setā has to be declined like “kaññā” using the same gender, number and case. Also, “rattaŋ”(red) is the adjective of “vatthaŋ”(cloth) in neuter gender, singular number and accusative case; so “rattaŋ” has to be declined like “vatthaŋ” using the same gender, number and case.<br />Those ending in “u” such as “bahu” and “mudu” are declined like “garu”, “dhenu” and “cakkhu”. Sometimes these, ending in “u”, add “kā” in their feminine stem and then they are declined like “vanitā” e.g., “mudu” = “mudukā, “bahu” = “bahukā”.<br />The words ending in “ī”, like “mālī” (one who has a garland), take “ini” instead of “ī” while forming feminine stems e.g., “mālī” = “mālinī”. Here, “mālinī” and such others are declined as “ārī”.<br /><br />PRONOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES<br />Pronouns can stand alone and replace nouns as substantives and they are also sometimes used as adjectives to qualify nouns in a sentence. When they are used as Adjectives they should be declined using the same Gender, Number and Case as the corresponding Noun.<br />Example: Sabbesaŋ nattāro paññavanto na bhavanti. <br /> Aparo aññissaŋ vāpiyaŋ nahātvā pubbāya disāya nagaraŋ pāvisi. <br /><br />PARTICIPLES USED AS ADJECTIVES <br />Participles are also sometimes used as adjectives to qualify nouns in a sentence. But unlike normal adjectives, which are derived from nouns, Participles are adjectives made out of a verb roots. There are Present Prticiples, Past Participles and Future Passive Participles which are used as adjectives. As they are used as Adjectives, they are also declined using the same Gender, Number and Case as the corresponding Noun.<br />Example: (a) Tițțhanto goņo tiņaŋ khādati, (b) Rukkhato otiņņā pakkhī, (c) Tumhehi dānāni dātabbāni honti<br /> <br />Example of Present Participle used as Adjective: Gāmaŋ gacchanto dārako ekaŋ goņaŋ disvā bhāyi.<br />Example of Past Participle used as Adjective: Hīyo araññaŋ gato so puriso ahinā dațțho mari.<br />Example of Future Passive Participle used as Adjective: Dāsena harīyamāno asso vāņijānaŋ vikkiņitabbo hoti.<br /><br />NUMERICALS USED AS ADJECTIVES<br />Numerical are often used as adjectives in qualifying nouns. In most of the time numericals are used in pleural form and they agree in terms of cases with the corresponding nouns. There are a few exceptions like “Eka” (one), “Ti” (three) and “Catu” (four) which are declined according to different genders.<br />Example: (a) Ayaŋ sīho tamhā vanamhā nikkhamma imasmiŋ magge țhatvā ekaŋ itthiŋ māresi. (b) Gacchantesu dasasu purisesu sattamo vāņijo hoti.<br /><br />Ordinal numerical are used as adjectives for qualifying nouns in a sentence.<br />Example: Dvinnaŋ dhanavantānaŋ dutiyo tiŋsatiyā yācakānaŋ dānaŋ adāsi.<br /><br />GENETIVE CASE (SINGULAR NUMBER) USED AS ADJECTIVES<br />Genetive Singulars are also can be used as adjectives in qualifying nouns. These are exceptions and do not follow the general rule of nouns and adjectives. Here, the adjectives do not agree with their corresponding nouns in terms of gender, number and case.<br />Example: Rajassa putto (son of the King).<br /><br /> <br />EXAMPLES OF SOME COMMON ADJECTIVES<br />CATEGORY ADJECTIVES MEANING EXAMPLE<br />Dimension & Quantity Gambhīra Deep Kumāriyo gambhīraŋ vāpiŋ gantvā nahāyissanti<br /> Uttāna Shallow Yuvatīyo uttāna vāpiŋ gantvā nahāyissanti<br /> Vitthata Wide / Broad Vanitāyo nāvāhi vitthatayaŋ gańgāyaŋ gacchantu<br /> Khuddaka Small Kassako khuddake gehe vasati<br /> Mahanta Big / Large Vāņijo mahante vihāre vasati <br /> Dīgha Long Dāsiyā mātā dhenuŋ dīghayā rajjuyā bandhitvā ānesi<br /> Rassa Short / Dwarf Dhenu rassaŋ tinaŋ bhuñjati<br /> Ucca High / Tall Dīpayo uccamhi girimhi vasanti<br /> Nīca Low / Vulgar Mañcassa nīce sunakho sayati<br /> Majjhima Medium Majjhimo bhātā pāto pāțhasālāŋ gacchati<br /> Appaka Few / Little Dhanavanto appakaŋ dhanaŋ dātuŋ na icchanti<br /> Bahu / Bahuka Many / Much Vānaro pāsāņe nisiditvā bahukā ambā khadati<br /> Santika Near Yuvatīyo santikaŋ vāpiŋ gantvā nahāyissanti<br /> Vidūra Far Suriyo girismā vidūre pācine ākāse udeti<br /> <br />EXAMPLES OF SOME COMMON ADJECTIVES (continued)<br />CATEGORY ADJECTIVES MEANING EXAMPLE<br />Colour Seta White Setayo gavīyo pāsāņe tițțhanti<br /> Nīla Blue Nīle ākāse setā pakkhino uddenti<br /> Ratta Red Mātā rattaŋ dhenuŋ rajjuyā bandhitvā ānesi<br /> Kāļa Black Kāļo gono khette tinaŋ bhuñjati<br /> Pīta Yellow Pītayo dīpayo girimhi vasanti<br /><br />Texture & Quality Khara Rough / Course Gonā khare pāsāņe tițțhanti<br /> Mudu Soft Pitaro muduŋ odanaŋ bhuñjiŋsu<br /> Bāla Foolish / Young Dhaņavā bālānaŋ bhātarānaŋ dhanaŋ dātuŋ na icchati<br /> Paņdita Wise Paņdito Garu susūnaŋ ucchavo adadi<br /> Balavantu Powerful Mantī balavantaŋ hatthinaŋ āruhissati<br /> Dubbala Feeble Yuvatīyā dubbalo pitaro mañce sayiŋsu<br /> Surūpa / Dassanīya Beautiful / Handsome Surūpāyo Vanitāyo nāvāhi gańgāyaŋ gacchantu<br /> Āma Unripe Sushu pasane nisiditvā amani phalāni khadati<br /> Pakka Ripe Vānaro pakkani ambe bhuñjati<br /> Dahara Young Daharāya Yuvatīyā pitaro odanaŋ bhuñjitvā sayiŋsu<br /> Mahallaka Elderly / Old Mahallakā Viduno mahantaŋ gehaŋ gacchiŋsu<br /> <br />EXAMPLES OF ADJECTIVES CORRESPONSING TO THE DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS<br /> STEM ENDING FORM NOUN EXAMPLE OF ADJECTIVES<br /> <br /> <br />MASCULINE a nara Setā gavīyo khare pāsāņe tițțhanti<br /> i aggi Pītayo dīpayo uccamhi girimhi vasanti<br /> ī pakkhī Mahallako mantī balavantaŋ hatthinaŋ āruhissati<br /> u garu Paņdito Garu surūpaŋ susūnaŋ ucchavo adadi<br /> ū vidū Surūpā mahallakā Viduno mahantaŋ gehaŋ gacchiŋsu<br /> FEMININE ā vanitā Surūpāyo Vanitāyo nāvāhi vitthatayaŋ gańgāyaŋ gacchantu<br /> i bhūmi Daharāya Yuvatīyā dubbalo pitaro muduŋ odanaŋ bhuñjitvā sayiŋsu<br /> ī ārī Āriyo santikaŋ gambhīraŋ vāpiŋ gantvā nahāyissanti<br /> u dhenu/ mātu Mahallikāya Dāsiyā mātā rattaŋ dhenuŋ dīghayā rajjuyā bandhitvā ānesi<br />NEUTER a nayana Dhanavanto bālānaŋ bhātarānaŋ appakaŋ dhanaŋ dātuŋ na icchanti<br /> i atthi Setayā gāviyā khīraŋ ca sappiñ ca labhāma<br /> u cakkhu Mahallakā pitaro setaŋ dadhiŋ bhuñjiŋsu<br /><br /> <br />DECLENSION OF NOUNS<br />Masculine Noun Stems ending in ‘a’<br /><br />DECLENSION ACCORDING TO VARIOUS CASES PREPOSITION SINGULAR (suffix) PLEURAL (suffix)<br />NOMINATIVE (SUBJECT) Subject o ā<br />ACCUSATIVE (OBJECT) To (Towards direction of action) ŋ e<br />INSTRUMENTAL By / with / through ena ebhi / ehi<br />DATIVE For / to āya / ssa ānaŋ<br />ABLATIVE From ā / mhā / smā ebhi / ehi<br />GENETIVE Of ssa ānaŋ<br />LOCATIVE In / on / at / upon e / mhi / smiŋ esu<br />VOCATIVE Oh! a / ā ā<br /><br />Here, Nominative Pleural form (subject) is similar to Vocative Pleural form (oh!)<br />Here, Instrumental Pleural form (by / with / through) is similar to Ablative Pleural form (from)<br />Here, Dative form (for / to) is similar to Genetive form (of)<br />DECLENSION OF NOUNS<br />Masculine Noun Stems ending in ‘a’<br />(Declension of “nara” meaning “man”)<br />DECLENSION ACCORDING TO VARIOUS CASES PREPOSITION SINGULAR PLEURAL<br />NOMINATIVE (SUBJECT) Subject Naro Narā<br />ACCUSATIVE (OBJECT) To (Towards direction of action) Naraŋ Nare<br />INSTRUMENTAL By / with / through Narena Narebhi / narehi<br />DATIVE For / to (Narāya /) narassa Narānaŋ<br />ABLATIVE From Narā / naramhā / narasmā Narebhi / narehi<br />GENETIVE Of Narassa Narānaŋ<br />LOCATIVE In / on / at / upon Nare / naremhi / narasmiŋ Naresu<br />VOCATIVE Oh! Nara / narā Narā<br /><br />Here, Nominative Pleural form (subject) is similar to Vocative Pleural form (oh!)<br />Here, Instrumental Pleural form (by / with / through) is similar to Ablative Pleural form (from)<br />Here, Dative form (for / to) is similar to Genetive form (of)<br /> <br />Some of the stems similarly declined like “nara” are –<br /><br />PĀLI NOUN STEMS MEANING PĀLI NOUN STEMS MEANING PĀLI NOUN STEMS MEANING<br />Purisa Man Buddha The Enlightened One Dāsa Slave<br />Manussa Human being Dhamma Doctrine Assa Horse<br />Hattha Hand Sańgha The community Bhūpala King<br />Pāda Leg / foot Āloka Light Gona Ox<br />Kāya Body Loka World Kassaka Farmer<br />Rukkha Tree Ākāsa Sky Sunakha Dog<br />Pāsāņa Rock / stone Suriya Sun Lekhaka Clerk / Writer<br />Gāma Village Canda Moon Varāha Pig<br />Magga Path Vihāra Monastery Deva God / deity<br />Putta Son Dīpa Island / lamp Sakuņa Bird<br />Āra / Kumāra Boy Mañca Bed Vānara Monkey<br />Vāņija Merchant Āharā Food Aja Goat<br />Cora Thief Sīha Lion Kāka Crow<br />Mitta Friend Miga Deer Ārāma Garden / Park<br />Geha House Hattha Hand Magga Path<br /> <br />DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS<br />Personal Pronoun Stems ending in ‘a’<br /> (Declension of “amha” meaning “myself”) <br />DECLENSION ACCORDING TO VARIOUS CASES PREPOSITION SINGULAR PLEURAL<br />NOMINATIVE (SUBJECT) Subject Ahaŋ<br />(I) Mayaŋ / amhe<br />(we)<br />ACCUSATIVE (OBJECT) To (Towards direction of action) Maŋ / mamaŋ<br />(me) Amhe / amhākaŋ / no<br />(us)<br />INSTRUMENTAL By / with / through Mayā / me Amhebhi / amhehi<br />DATIVE For / to Mama / mayhaŋ / me/ mamaŋ Amhaŋ / amhākaŋ<br />ABLATIVE From Mayā Amhebhi / amhehi<br />GENETIVE Of Mama / mayhaŋ / me/ mamaŋ Amhaŋ / amhākaŋ<br />LOCATIVE In / on / at / upon Mayi Amhesu<br />VOCATIVE Oh! NA NA<br /><br />Here, Instrumental form (by / with / through) is similar to Ablative form (from). The Nominative Pleural form is similar to the Accusative Pleural form.<br />Here, Dative form (for / to) is similar to Genetive form (of)<br /> <br />DECLENSION OF NUMERALS<br /> (Declension of “eka” meaning “one”, which is declined like relative pronoun “ya” in three genders, singular form)<br />DECLENSION ACCORDING TO VARIOUS CASES PREPOSITION MASCULINE NEUTER FEMININE<br />NOMINATIVE (SUBJECT) Subject Eko Ekaŋ Ekā<br />ACCUSATIVE (OBJECT) To (Towards direction of action) Ekaŋ Ekaŋ Ekaŋ<br />INSTRUMENTAL By / with / through Ekena Ekena Ekāya<br />DATIVE For / to Ekassa Ekassa Ekassā / Ekāya<br />ABLATIVE From Ekamhā / Ekasmā Ekamhā / Ekasmā Ekāya<br />GENETIVE Of Ekassa Ekassa Ekassā / Ekāya<br />LOCATIVE In / on / at / upon Ekamhi / Ekasmiŋ Ekamhi / Ekasmiŋ Ekassaŋ / Ekāyaŋ<br />VOCATIVE Oh! NA NA NA<br /><br />Here, Nominative form is similar to Accusative form and Instrumental form (by / with / through) is similar to Ablative form (from)<br />Here, Dative form (for / to) is similar to Genetive form (of)<br />Among the Numerals, only “Eka”, “Ti” and “Catu” are declined differently in all genders. Here, “Eka” is singular but “Ti” and “Catu” are pleural.<br /> <br />PĀLI VERBS AND THEIR USES<br />Conjugations of verbs:<br />There are three tenses, two voices, two numbers and three persons in the conjugation of Pāli verbs. The third person in English is equivalent to the first person in Pāli . The numbers are similar to those of the English nouns like “singular” and “pleural”. There is no attempt to conjugate the continuous, perfect and Perfect Continuos Tenses in Pāli . Therefore, only the indefinite forms are used in place of continuous forms in Pāli . Details are as follows:<br /><br />TENSES<br />(1) Vattamānakāla = Present Tense<br />(2) Atītakāla = Past Tense<br />(3) Anāgatakāla = Future Tense<br /><br />VOICE<br />(1) Kattukāraka = Active Voice<br />(2) Kammakāraka = Passive Voice<br /><br />PERSON<br />(1) Pațhamapurisa = Third Person<br />(2) Majjhimapurisa = Second Person<br />(3) Uttamapurisa = First Person<br /><br />NUMBER<br />(1) Ekavacana = Singular<br />(2) Bahuvacana = Pleural<br /> <br />There are seven different conjugations in Pāli . They are called dhātugaņas (groups of roots). The verbal root with the conjugation forms the “verbal base”. The “verbal base” with the suffix forms the different tenses in Pāli grammer.<br />Each dhātugaņa has one or more different conjugational signs, which come between the root and the verbal termination.<br />The seven conjugations and their signs are:<br />1st conjugation = Bhuvādigaņa → “a”<br />2nd conjugation = Rudhādigaņa → “m -a”<br />3rd conjugation = Divādigaņa → “ya”<br />4th conjugation = Svādigaņa → “ņo” / “ņu” / “uņā”<br />5th conjugation = Kiyādigaņa → “ņā”<br />6th conjugation = Tanādigaņa → “o” / “yira”<br />7th conjugation = Curādigaņa → “e” / “aya”<br />A great number of roots are included in the first and the seventh group. The roots “paca” and “bhū” given above, belong to the first conjugation. The last vowel of “paca” is dropped before the conjugational sign “a”.<br />The monosyllabic roots like “bhū” do not drop their vowel. It is “guņated” or strengthened before the conjugational sign:<br />(1) If “i” / “ī” is strengthened, then it becomes “e” Example, (nī + a) ¬¬¬→ (ne +a)<br />(2) If “u” / “ū” is strengthened, then it becomes “o” Example, (bhū + a) ¬¬¬→ (bho +a)<br />Then these forms undergo further change in the following manner to form the verbal base:<br />(1) Then “e” followed by “a” is further changed into “ay” Example, (ne + a) ¬¬¬→ (naya)<br />(2) Then “o” followed by “a” is further changed into “av” Example, (bho + a) ¬¬¬→ (bhava)<br /><br />The “verbal root” with its conjugational sign thus forms what is called the “verbal base”. In the first example, “nī” is the verbal root and “naya” is the verbal base. In the second example, “bhū” is the verbal root and “bhava” is the verbal base.<br /><br />The seventh conjugation<br />The special feature of the first conjugation is that the last vowel of the base is lengthened before the First Personal endings. The same rule is applied for the bases ending with “a” of the 2nd, 3rd, 6th and 7th conjugations, in addition to their special features.<br />The bases of the seventh conjugation are of two kinds as it has two conjugational signs, eg., from the root “pāla” two bases “pāle” and “pālaya” are formed. They are derived in the present tense 3rd person singular as “pāleti” and “pālayati” respectively.<br />The conjugational sign “ņa” of the fifth group is shortened in the 3rd person pleural, eg., “vikkiņanti”, where the singular form is “vikkiņāti”.<br /><br /> <br />DERIVATION OF PĀLI VERBS IN THREE TENSES<br />(VERB ROOT + CONJUGATION SIGN = VERBAL BASE)<br />(VERBAL BASE + SUFFIX = DERIVATION IN PERSON AND NUMBER)<br /><br />(A) PRESENT TENSE SUFFIXES<br /> SINGULAR PLEURAL<br />THRID PERSON (so) ti (te) anti<br />SECOND PERSON (tvaŋ) si (tumhe) tha<br />FIRST PERSON (ahaŋ) mi (mayaŋ) ma<br /><br />(B) PAST TENSE SUFFIXES<br /> SINGULAR PLEURAL<br />THRID PERSON (so) i (te) iŋsu<br />SECOND PERSON (tvaŋ) o (tumhe) ittha<br />FIRST PERSON (ahaŋ) iŋ (mayaŋ) imha / imhā<br /> <br />(C) FUTURE TENSE SUFFIXES<br /> SINGULAR PLEURAL<br />THRID PERSON (so) issati (te) issanti<br />SECOND PERSON (tvaŋ) issasi (tumhe) issatha<br />FIRST PERSON (ahaŋ) issāmi (mayaŋ) issāma<br /><br /> <br />PĀLI INDECLINABLES<br />PĀLI CONJUNCTIONS (indeclinables)<br />(1) Conjunction for Instrumental case to show association with living beings is often used as “saha” or “saddhim” in Pāli .<br />(2) Conjunction “and” is used as “ca” / “api” / “pi” in Pāli .<br />(3) Conjugation “or” is used as “vā” in Pāli .<br /><br />ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS PĀLI CONJUNCTIONS<br />WITH Saha / Saddhim<br />AND Ca / Api / Pi<br />OR Vā / Athavā<br />IF Sace / Yadi / Ce<br />BUT Tathā pi<br />NEITHER - NOR Vā - na<br />EITHER - OR Vā<br /><br />PĀLI PHRASES FROM TEXTS<br />Sl. No. PĀLI PHRASE ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF PĀLI PHRASE<br />1 Tassa evaŋ hoti This idea comes to him<br />2 Tassa etadahosi This idea came to him<br />3 Tassa evamassa This idea would come to him<br />4 Muhuttam āgamehi Wait (for) a moment<br />5 Nālaŋ dārabharaņāya Unfit for keeping up a family<br />6 Mamaccayena After me<br />7 Samahite citte (locative absolutive) In the concentrated mind <br />8 Upamā maŋ pațibhāti A simile came to me<br />9 Nāti dūre nāccāsanne Neither too far not too near<br />10 Kālaŋ karoti Dies<br />11 Appaŋ vā bahuŋ vā A little or a lot / Less or more<br />12 Rattindivaŋ Day and night<br />13 Khaņe khaņe Moment by moment<br />14 Saddhaŋ patilabhati Gains faith<br />15 Sato Sampajāno Being mindful and aware<br /> <br />References<br /><br />1. Collins, S. 2006. Pāli Grammar for Students. Silkworm Books. (ISBN 978-974-9511-13-8).<br />2. Gair, J., Karunatilleke, W.S. 1998. A New Course in Reading Pāli : Entering the Word of the Buddha. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (ISBN 81-208-1440-1).<br />3. Buddhadatta, A.P. 2006. The New Pāli Course: Parts I & II. Dehiwala, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Cultural Centre.<br />4. Bodhi, B. 2009. A Course in the Pāli Language. Lafayette, NJ, USA: Bodhi Monastery.<br />5. Bullitt, J.T. 2009. A Guide to Learning the Pāli Language. Electronic source: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bullitt/learningPāli .html.<br />6. Warder, A.K. 1991. Introduction to Pāli . London: Pāli Text Society.<br />7. De Silva, L. 1994. Pāli Primer. Igatpuri, India: Vipassana Research Institute.<br />8. Johansson, Rune E.A. 1998. Pāli Buddhist Texts: An Introductory Reader and Grammar. Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series, No. 14. London: Routledge/Curzon.<br />9. Muller, E. 1986. Pāli Language. Delhi: Bharatiya Book Corporation.<br />10. Vidyabhushan, N.C., Ghose, M.K. 1982. A Pāli Grammar. Calcutta: Kiron Moy Ghose.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-55885316102161404292009-10-25T04:50:00.001-07:002009-10-25T04:50:59.662-07:00CONTRIBUTING FACTORS FOR THE DISAPPEARANCE OF BUDDHISM FROM INDIAThis is a preview version. To order the complete book, please visit “Bookstore” of website: http://www.unibook.com <br />Or Click on: http://www.unibook.com/unibook/site/bookdetail/?bookid=8375<br /><br /><br />CONTRIBUTING FACTORS FOR THE DISAPPEARANCE OF BUDDHISM FROM INDIA<br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /> <br />Background: Dr. Ankur Barua had graduated with distinction from the University of Hong Kong (MBuddStud, 2009). He had also completed two other Master Degrees, one from Sikkim Manipal University (MBAIT, 2007) while the other from Manipal University (MBBS-2000, MD in Community Medicine - 2003) and presently working in professional field. Ms. M.A. Basilio is a nursing professional who has also a keen passion for conducting research on religion and science.<br /><br /><br />First Publication on 8th October 2009<br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br /><br />Copyright © Ankur Barua and M.A.Basilio<br /><br />Communication Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,<br />Salt Lake City, Sector-2,<br />Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br />Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)<br /> <br />Acknowledgements<br /><br />I wish to express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to Ven. Dr. Jing Yin, Professor of Buddhist Studies and Director of the Centre of Buddhist Studies in the University of Hong Kong for his kind support, inspiration, encouragement and timely advice during the compilation of this book.<br /><br />I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my beloved father Dr. Dipak Kumar Barua, who was the earlier Dean of the Faculty Council for Postgraduate Studies in Education, Journalism & Library Science in the University of Calcutta (1987-1991) and the Director of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda (1996-1999) for his technical guidance and valuable advice. <br /><br />I would also like to convey my sincere thanks to my beloved mother Mrs. Dipa Barua for showing keen interest and providing constant assistance and support during this endeavor.<br /><br />Ankur Barua<br /> <br />Preface<br />Initiated in India by the Sakyamuni Buddha, Buddhism has now become a world religion and at present, the Buddhist population is the third largest religious community in the world. Buddhism lasted over a thousand years in India, the land of its origin. But the supreme irony of the history of Indian Buddhism still remains with the unexplained question regarding what led to the disappearance of Buddhism from India. Many scholars of Indian history and religion are devoted to unraveling this puzzle. Due to the lack of historical and archeological evidence, the debate continues for centuries and there is no absolute consensus on this matter till date. <br /><br />Since, the teachings of the Buddha is appreciated by people of every religion all across the world, everyone in India now wants a share of its merit. As a result, none of the concerned royal families or the religious communities in India is ready to own the responsibility for its disappearance.<br /><br />However, this research explores the probable reasons for the gradual decline and subsequent disappearance of Buddhism from India. An attempt is also made at the end to arrange all these sequence of events in a chronological manner to understand the actual process of this decline.<br /><br />Ankur Barua & M.A. Basilio<br /> <br />CONTRIBUTING FACTORS FOR THE DISAPPEARANCE OF BUDDHISM FROM INDIA<br /><br />Abstract<br /><br />Many scholars of Indian history and religion are devoted to unraveling the mystery of what led to disappearance of Buddhism from India. Due to the lack of historical and archeological evidence, there is no absolute consensus on this matter till date. However, if we analyze all the contributing factors and arrange them in a chronological order, we would realize that the whole sequence of events was initiated by the Buddhist monks and clergy when they had ignored the teachings of the Buddha and concentrated on accumulation of abundance of wealth in the monasteries. They had abandoned the community visits and concentrated on their own salvation instead of helping the common people and oppressed classes to end their sufferings. As the lay devotes were ignored, Buddhism started losing the general support from the community. Subsequently, the Brahmins took advantage of this situation and deepened the rift between the common people and the Buddhist practitioners. They also manipulated the contemporary rulers to withdraw their support from Buddhism and help in reviving the existing Brahmanism. This was followed by the revival of Hinduism and further decline of Buddhism. Towards the end stage of this decline, there was the Muslim invasion of India. During this time, majority of the surviving Buddhists in India, who earlier belonged to the lower class Hindus, was either forcefully or willingly got converted into Islam. <br /><br />Key words: Buddhism, Disappearance, Decline, Brahmanism, Brahmins, Hinduism, Islam. <br /> <br />CONTRIBUTING FACTORS FOR THE DISAPPEARANCE OF BUDDHISM FROM INDIA<br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />Buddhism lasted over a thousand years in India. But it is still unknown as to what led to the disappearance of Buddhism from India, the land of its origin. Many scholars of Indian history and religion are devoted to unraveling this enigma. Due to the lack of historical and archeological evidence, the debate continues for centuries and there is no absolute consensus on this matter till date.1 Two factors were generally cited as the main reasons for the ultimate disappearance of Buddhism from India. The first one was the Vedic revival, which drove the religion out the country and this was followed by the invading hordes of the Prophet Mohammed, who razed the temples and slaughtered the remaining unresisting monks. Though majority of the scholars generally accept these two important factors, still they do not believe that these were the truly crucial reasons for the disappearance of Buddhism from India. Muslim invasions primarily wrecked only Northern India. But Buddhism was a significant religious force in Southern India too. Mahayana Buddhism mainly developed in the Southern regions. So whatever happened to Buddhism in the northern regions, it still could not explain how the religion disappeared from Southern India as well.1,2,3<br /><br />However, the irony of Buddhism in India is represented by the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, India. The present condition of the Bodhi tree also aptly symbolizes the present status of Buddhism in the world. The main original trunk of the Bodhi tree is missing and the tree is now thriving on its prop roots. Similarly, though Buddhism had been wiped off from its place of origin in India, but it is still flourishing in other countries across the world.<br /><br /><br />Buddhism was a Critical Response to the Existing Brahmanism<br />Conflicts of opinions prevail while identifying the probable factors leading to the disappearance of Buddhism from India during the 12th century A.D. A few scholars however, cherish the opinion that Buddhism never disappeared as such from India and subsequently got incorporated into the Hinduism. They believe that modern Hinduism in India is a new form of ancient Buddhism.2,3 Due to the striking similarities in the teachings of Buddhism and modern Hinduism, there is another group of scholars who uphold the theory that Buddhism is a restatement of Hinduism.1,2,4 But this notion is absolutely false as Hinduism is a much later development after the disappearance of Buddhism from India. If someone has to relate any ancient religion in India with Buddhism, it should be the existing Brahmanism which paved way to the introduction of Buddhism in India by Sakyamuni Buddha during the 6th century B.C., who was a historical personality. Buddhism should be viewed as a critical response to the existing Brahmanism. Buddhism came into existence in order to wipe off the existing four-tier caste system in India laid down by the Aryans. As the status of women was remarkably subdued and deplorable during the period of Brahmanism, Buddhism came to the rescue by upholding the women’s rights and focused on empowerment of women in the society. Sakyamuni Buddha was the first historical personality who rose against all odds to abolish discrimination and violence against women in the existing Indian society.1,2,5<br /><br /><br />Gradual Decline of Buddhism in India during the 7th Century A.D. <br />Though Buddhism had been the dominant religion in much of the Gangetic plains in the early part of the Christian era, but the Chinese traveler, Ven. Hsuan Tsang, during his visit to India in the early years of the 7th century, had witnessed a recession. The testimony of Ven. Hsuan Tsang, had demonstrated the gradual decline of Buddhism in India. In Prayag or present Allahabad, he had encountered many non-Buddhists. This was not surprising considering the importance of Prayag as a pilgrimage site for Brahmins.1,2,3<br /><br />Shravasti was the capital city of the Lichhavis, a north Indian clan that came to power around 200 AD and established their capital in Pasupatinath. In a long and glorious period of reign extending through the early part of the ninth century, they had endowed a large number of both Hindu and Buddhist monuments and monasteries. However, during his visit, Ven. Hsuan Tsang witnessed a much greater number of Saivites and Jains than Buddhists. 1,2,3,5<br /><br />Kushinagar, the small village near Gorakhpur where the Buddha had gone into Mahaparinibbana, was in a dilapidated state and Ven. Hsuan Tsang found only a few Buddhists. Though in Varanasi, Ven. Hsuan Tsang found around 3000 Bhikkus or Buddhist monks, but they were outshadowed by more than 10,000 non-Buddhists. Hence, we can conclude that Ven. Hsuan Tsang had arrived in India at a time when Buddhism was entering into a state of precipitous decline. But even as Buddhism went into decline, it is remarkable that Nalanda, the great seat of Buddhist learning, continued to flourish by retaining its importance until the Muslim invasions of the second millennium. It was from Nalanda that Ven. Padmasambhava had carried Buddhism to Tibet during the eighth century.1,2,3,4,5 <br /><br />Hence, it is evident that the story of Buddhism in India cannot be unequivocally written in a single register of decline as the entire process of decline was gradual and spread over a long period of time. <br /><br /><br />Contributing Factors for the Disappearance of Buddhism from India<br />Buddhism had altogether disappeared from India as a formal religion during the 13th century A.D.6 In order to explore the contributing factors for the decline and disappearance of Buddhism from India; we need to consider all the events in a sequential and chronological order. These factors could be arranged under the following major headings: (a) Sectarian and Internal Conflicts – Relating to the schisms within the Buddhist faith; the widening differences between the clergy, Buddhist monks and laity; and the growing corruption within the sangha. (b) Buddhists were persecuted by Brahmins - Alleged persecution of Buddhists by Brahmins; the defeat of the Buddhists by the great theologian Adi Shankaracharya in public debates; as well as the characteristic tendency of Hinduism, or rather Brahmanism, to absorb its opponents. (c) Secular and political histories - Withdrawal of royal patronage from Buddhism was followed by the Muslim invasions which had the effect of driving into extinction the already debilitated Buddhist community.1,2,3,5,6<br /><br />It is important to understand that Buddhism was never wiped off from India on a single day and in any single event. Like the causal web of a disease, it was a multi-factorial causation. The process of decline and subsequent disappearance was gradual and lasted for many centuries. So, before we get into the details of any historical analysis, we should first arrange the factors in a chronological order and observe the interdependency of a previous event leading to the next. <br /><br /><br /> <br />Concluding Remarks<br /><br />In accordance to the teachings of the Buddha, the disappearance of Buddhism in India had actually followed the Buddha’s universal Doctrine of Dependent Origination. Here, one factor had led to the other and caused this ultimate outcome. So, instead of wasting our valuable time on debating over which factor was more responsible than the rest and caused more damage to the practice of Buddhism in India, we should now concentrate on how to revive Buddhism in a global perspective. Since, Buddhism preaches loving kindness and compassion as well as it can adopt to meet different traditional, moral and cultural needs of the community, it can play a lead role in promoting peace and harmony in the contemporary global society.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-977921210343913072009-10-25T04:48:00.000-07:002009-10-25T04:50:09.760-07:00THE BODHISATTA WITH UNFAILING ROPE OF COMPASSION: THE ICONOGRAPHY OF AMOGHAPĀŚAThis is a preview version. To order the complete book, please visit “Bookstore” of website: http://www.unibook.com <br />Or Click on: http://www.unibook.com/unibook/site/bookdetail/?bookid=8372<br /><br /><br />THE BODHISATTA WITH UNFAILING ROPE OF COMPASSION: <br />THE ICONOGRAPHY OF AMOGHAPĀŚA <br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br /><br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /><br /><br /><br />Background: Dr. Ankur Barua had graduated with distinction from the University of Hong Kong (MBuddStud, 2009). He had also completed two other Master Degrees, one from Sikkim Manipal University (MBAIT, 2007) while the other from Manipal University (MBBS-2000, MD in Community Medicine - 2003) and presently working in professional field. <br />Ms. M.A. Basilio is a nursing professional who has also a keen passion for conducting research on public health, religion and science.<br /><br />First Publication on 26th October 2009<br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br /><br />Copyright © Ankur Barua and M.A. Basilio<br /><br /><br />Communication Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,<br />Salt Lake City, Sector-2,<br />Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br />Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)<br /> <br />Acknowledgements<br /><br />I wish to express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to Prof. Dr. Dorothy Wong, visiting Professor of Buddhist Art at the Centre of Buddhist Studies in the University of Hong Kong for her constant encouragement, constructive criticism, personal attention and valuable guidance throughout this work.<br /><br />I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my beloved father Dr. Dipak Kumar Barua, who was the earlier Dean of the Faculty Council for Postgraduate Studies in Education, Journalism & Library Science in the University of Calcutta (1987-1991) and the Director of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda (1996-1999) for his technical guidance and timely advice for this project. <br /><br />I would also like to convey my sincere thanks to my beloved mother Mrs. Dipa Barua for showing keen interest and providing constant assistance and support during this endeavor.<br /><br /><br /><br />Ankur Barua <br /> <br />THE BODHISATTA WITH UNFAILING ROPE OF COMPASSION: <br />THE ICONOGRAPHY OF AMOGHAPĀŚA <br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />Amoghapāśa (Avalokiteśvara Bodhisatta with the Unfailing Rope) is one of the popular esoteric forms of Avalokiteśvara, who protects all sentient, living beings by means of his rope of compassion and has their wishes fulfilled. This is why he is known as “the Bodhisatta with the Unfailing Rope (Amoghapāśa)”. This lasso of compassion is used to rope in all wayward sentient beings to the Dhamma, so that they do not fall into the three evil realms, and always guiding them on the Correct Path.1<br /><br />The widespread worship of this deity first started in India, and then spread to the Himalayas, East Asia during the later part of the eighth century. Though the initiation of this Bodhisatta in East Asia remains unclear, but the examination of Amoghapāśa images suggests that the cult of Amoghapāśa in East Asia arose in the late seventh to eighth centuries. It was initiated by imperial patronage due to their devotion to the esoteric Avalokiteśvara with the concept of royalty and efficacy in protecting the state. Confounded by the lack of early Indian examples, the scholars of Indian art still believe that there must have been Indian precedents prior to the East Asian images.1,2<br /><br /><br />Early Textual Evidences of Amoghapāśa<br />Amoghapāśa owes his existence to the rise of the Diamond Vehicle (vajrayāna) in India and is mentioned in various works of esoteric Buddhism. The Amoghapāśakalparāja, the bulky Amoghapāśa-ritual is a masterpiece of the Mahāyānistic Tantra literature containing twenty-six chapters. The first chapter of this text was also published as the Amoghapāśahṛdaya Mahāyāna-sūtra.3 <br />Several versions of the Amoghapāśa-dhāraṇi-sūtra4 have been translated into Chinese, most of them during the sixth and eighth centuries. The earliest known information on Amoghapāśa comes from Chinese translations of this text that were made by Jnānagupta in 587, Hsüan Tsang in 659, Bodhiruci in 693 and Amoghavajra in the seventh century.1 Tibetan versions of Amoghapāśahṛdaya texts emphasize Amoghapāśa’s role as a compassionate savior. Recitation of his mantras results in twenty blessings in this world and eight for those near death. 5,6,7 <br /><br /><br />Early Appearance of Amoghapāśa Images during the Pāla Period Art in India<br />The significant period for the popularity of multiple-armed forms of Avalokiteśvara was the early part of the Pāla period (8th-12th centuries), for most images depicting multiple-armed forms date to either the ninth or tenth centuries. While four-armed forms are most commonly found, a smaller number of six-armed images also survive.8 These images were identified as of Amoghapāśa because of the presence of pāśa, which is a distinctive attribute of this form of Avalokiteśvara. 9 <br /><br />The exact origins of Amoghapāśa images are not yet clearly defined. The descriptions of Amoghapāśa are completely missing in the Indian texts, the Sādhanamālā10 and the Niṣpannayogāvalī11, which were used for iconographic identifications. However, descriptions of Amoghapāśa are found in Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese collections. A Nepalese manuscript of the Amoghapāśa Lokeśvara pūjā contains a description of the most popularly depicted eight-armed form of Amoghapāśa.6,12 <br /><br />R.O. Meisezahl has published descriptions of the eight-armed form preserved in the Tibetan Tanjur which are recorded to have come from Bengal and Kashmir. These descriptions all agree in prescribing the akṣamālā, pāśa, abhaya mudrā and varada mudrā for the right hands of the figure and the padmā, tridaṇḍī, pustaka and kamaṇḍalu for the left ones.12 <br /><br />The cintāmaṇi is an attribute of Avalokiteśvara, but usually associated with Cintāmaṇicakra Avalokiteśvara. The cintāmaṇi is viewed as the jewel which grants all wishes, a popular aspect of Avalokiteśvara’s nature, which is also connected to his ability to save an protect. Some earlier images of Amoghapāśa from Japan are also found to have this jewel as an attribute. However, a six-armed form of Amoghapāśa in India, described in the Sādanamālā, known as Pretasantarpita, also holds the jewel or cintāmaṇi. Interestingly, Pretasantarpita which is translated as “satiated with pretās, the hungry ghosts”, share some of the common functions as Amoghapāśa as the deliverer of beings from horrible existence of the hell.9,13<br /><br />One of the earliest examples of Amoghapāśa image from India during 8th–9th century is the four-armed broken image at Udayagiri (Fig. 1). He is richly adorned and wears a jeweled diadem at the base of is jaṭā-mukuṭa coiffure. His third eye and the effigy of Amitābha in his coiffure are eroded. His head is framed by a plain halo which is flanked on either side by a goddess seated in vajraparyaṅka on a viśvapadma. The rosary and noose are both held in the uplifted back right hand while the principal right hand is lowered in vaada-mudrā. Only abhaya-mudrā of the eight-armed form is missing in the right hand of this image. The major left arm is broken at the elbow. The raised back left hand holds the Kamaṇḍalu. There are seven Mānuṣī buddhas flanked on the right by Vajrapāṇi and on the left by Maitreya, each figure being seated in Vajraparyaṅka, with the centre Buddha displaying dharachakra-mudrā. The lower part of the image below the knees is broken.14<br /><br />In contrast, a standing four-armed image of Amoghapāśa at Ratnagiri has the noose held in one of the left hands (Fig. 2). This image, dated in 8th century, was found in the area of the banyan grove. He stands rigidly in a slightly flexed pose on a viśvapadma with his principal right hand lowered in varada while the uplifted back hand holds the rosary. His principal left hand held chest-high holds the stalk of a lotus while the uplifted back hand holds the noose. He is richly adorned and an effigy of Amitābha appears in is jaṭā-mukuṭa. He has a third-eye and his head is framed by an oval halo. The sides of the back-slab each contain a meandering lotus stalk branching out from the viśvapadma seat of Amoghapāśa and blossom opposite the halo of the deity where they each support a Tathāgata, Akṣobhya on the right and Amitābha on the left. The centre branch on the left is held in his raised principal left hand to blossom above his shoulder. In the fork made by the two branches of the stalk on the left is placed the kamaṇḍalu, replaced in the uplifted back hand by the noose. In this image there are three objects on the left side, though there are only two arms on this side. Amoghapāśa is flanked at the base by Tārā on the right and Bhṛkuti on the left, each seated in vajraparyaṅka.14 <br /><br />Some six-armed images of Avalokiteśvara, with one hand holding the lasso (pāśa), were found at Kurkihār and Amethi (Fig.3a). They belong to the 9th-10 centuries and are standing images wearing long dhotis and having antelope skins draped around their torsos. They are adorned with jewelry and crowned with a small image of Amitābha placed at the centre. Some of these images also hold the cintāmaṇi jewel on one of the right hands. They are attended by Tārā on the right side and Bhṛkuti, who is four-armed, on the left.9<br /><br />It is obvious that there were two major iconographic forms of Amoghapāśa evolving in Orissa at this time, one with a noose in the right hand and another with a noose in the left hand. The addition of a third object or attribute on one side or the other in a four-armed image suggests the form is transitional leading to one that will have additional hands. A similar transition was noticed by J. Leoshko on some seated six-armed Pāla period images of Amoghapāśa where a book is added on the left side to make four attributes while the cintāmaṇi on the right side is replaced by abhaya-mudrā. The book and abhaya-mudrā are attributes of the eight-armed Amoghapāśa form as prescribed in texts. So, the only missing attribute is tridaṇdī.15<br /><br />The paucity of six-armed and eight-armed images of Avalokiteśvara suggests an abrupt cessation in this line of development.16 The reason for this interruption, occurring near the end of the Bhauma period, is unknown. It could be as a result of changing tenets within the indigenous Buddhist sects or due to a change in external patronage.14<br /><br />These incipient Orissan forms of Amoghapāśa evolved primarily from the four-armed image and do not exhibit many of the peculiar features prescribed in the later texts, such as a tiger-skin wrapped around the lower garment or the antelope-hide serving as a sacred thread. The number of companion deities varies from two to five with variable identities and genders, suggesting their iconography has not yet crystallized. The image of Sudhanakumāra, who is popular in textual descriptions of Amoghapāśa is absent, while Ekajaṭā appears only once or twice. Tārā, in contrast, seldom appearing in textual descriptions, appears in all Orissan examples.9,14<br /><br />A few twelve-arm forms of Avalokiteśvara were found at Nālandā (Fig. 3b) and nearby Telhāra region which could be identified as Amoghapāśa. Although they do not completely correspond to the twelve-armed description published by Meisezahl, they hold a pāśa in one of their left hands. The images from Nālandā are early example of the eighth century and those from Telhāra dates to the early tenth century. These twelve-armed images of Amoghapāśa were popular at a few sites indicating localized practices of Amoghapāśa. 9<br /><br />The popularity of the six-armed forms of Amoghapāśa in the Gayā region may reflect the influence of ideas or activities occurring at the nearby sites of Bodhgayā and Gayā.17 The Hindu tīrtha Gayā is considered to be a holy place for the performance of srāddha ceremonies for ancestors.14 These activities are concerned with the welfare of dead ancestors can be related to the Pretasantarpita form of Avalokiteśvara which was common with Amoghapāśa. According to the Amoghapāśahṛdhyadhāranīsūtra, Amoghapāśa is believed to deliver eight benefits at the hour of death to save the human beings from an unpleasant existence.18<br /><br /><br /> <br />Iconography of Early Image of Amoghapāśa from Nepal<br />Amoghapāśa Lokeshvara, a manifestation of the Bodhisatta Avalokiteshvara and one of the most popular deities in Nepal, is one of the eight tutelary deities of the Kathmandu valley. This sculpture of Amoghapāśa Lokeshvara (Fig. 4), with copper with traces of gilding and gold pigment, epitomizes the classical beauty of Licchavi period (c. AD 300-879) art in Nepal. Amoghapāśa's graceful posture (tribhanga) and gentle countenance are exquisitely rendered. Ornament is pared to the minimum to allow for the cleanest line. The sacred thread (upavita), antelope skin and scarf fall naturally over the god's youthful, sensuous form. The fan-like arrangement of Amoghapāśa's twelve-arm form a halo around his body. This is made of unalloyed copper, which is problematic to cast. But this is cast in one piece and entirely fire-gilt. Unfortunately, the arms have suffered damage and almost all are now displaced.12,19 <br /><br />Amoghapāśa is particularly popular in Nepal and is only rarely encountered in Tibet. However, this image has been worshipped in Tibet for an indeterminate period, as confirmed by the presence of traces of gold paint on the face and neck and blue pigment in the hair. The practice of applying paint to images in this manner is unknown in Nepal. Elegant facial expressions and sense of movement, the pronounced webbing between the fingers, seen here especially between the thumb and forefinger are iconographic features that appear throughout the Licchavi period.20 A pronounced nose, protruding lower lip and webbed fingers were standard sculptural features of this period which were derived from the ideals of the great artistic era of the Indian Gupta kings.12,19<br /><br />Iconography of Early Image of Amoghapāśa from Tibet<br />In the Garbhakosa Maṇḍala of Tibet, Amoghapāśa is seated in the middle of the 3rd row of the Lotus Section. Amoghapāśa here is white-fleshed and 3-eyed in each of the three faces. He has 4-arms and wears a robe of deerskin (Fig. 5). The two important attributes of this form of Amoghapāśa Avalokiteśvara are the infallible lasso and Vajra of Equal Guidance.1,6 The indication of Hindu influences on the esoteric Buddhist iconography is evident from the inclusion of multiple arms and multiple heads, depicting the superhuman power and efficacy similar to Maheśvara, a form of Śiva.21<br />Iconography of Early Images of Amoghapāśa from China<br />A group of esoteric images dating to late seventh and early eighth centuries at Longmen, reflects the influence of Esoteric Buddhism fostered by the patronage of the Empress Wu. The eight-armed Bodhisatta at Longmen could have been an incipient form of Amoghapāśa.22 Buddhism was an instrument to augment her political status and legitimacy for Empress Wu. She promoted the cults of Amoghapāśa and other esoteric Avalokiteśvaras, notably the Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara and the Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara, invoking their powers to protect the state. It was the same ideological principles that took shape in Japan about half a century later, focusing on Todaiji.23<br /><br />There is no existing representation of this Bodhisatta dating to the late seventh and early eighth centuries from China at present. The only known example comes from Dunhuang Cave 148 which dates to 776; the statue is lost but there are murals depicting the benefits of worshiping this Bodhisatta.24 <br />One maṇḍala of Avalokiteśvara as Amoghapāśa (Amojia Guanyin), also known as Bukongjuansuo Guanyin, was found in one of the Mogao caves near Dunhuang. In this maṇḍala of the tenth century, Amoghapāśa sits in an eight-pointed star at the center of the painting as the primary deity (Fig. 6). He is surrounded by a circle of vajras and placed within a square foundation with protective deities at the four cardinal directions. He wears a crown and jewelry and holds a lasso, the traditional lotus and a rosary in three of his four arms. Additional forms of Avalokiteśvara alternate with attendant deities in the eight peaks of the stars. The four-armed wish-granting Avalokiteśvara Monibao Guanyin) and the powerful thousand-armed manifestation (Qianshou Guanyin) appear at either side of five buddhas in the upper portion of the painting. The buddhas, who are echoed by the smaller images in their crowns and in that of the principal icon, represent the five lineages of Buddhism. Buddha Vairocana, identified by his white color, is the central and largest of the five. The donors are depicted at the bottom of this painting.25<br /><br />In Fowan Cave 136 in the Beishan caves, Dazu, Sichuan, dated to 1142-1146, Amoghapāśa is portrayed as seated with six arms, holding two round discs in the upper two hands (for Sunlight and Moonlight Bodhisattas), a bowl and a willow branch in the middle two hands, and a sword and an axe in the outer two hands (Fig. 7). The Bodhisatta has an elaborate floral crown with Amitābha at the top is lost, and florid jewelry on the chest. The two attendants by the side of the pedestal represent Vasiṣṭha and Lakṣmi. In later Chinese iconography the two attendant figures for Avalokiteśvara have transformed into a young boy, Sudhana and a young Dragon Girl, revealing a process of local adaptation.2 <br />Iconography of Early Images of Amoghapāśa from Japan<br />The earliest representation of Amoghapāśa in Japan (J. Fukūkenjaku Kannon), dated 748 is in the Sangatsudō (Hall of the Third month) of Tadaiji, Nara (Fig. 8). This Amoghapāśa image is a grandiose artistic masterpiece of 3.62 meters high, with a vivid countenance and thick and round cheeks with an austere expression. This ancient image of Amoghapāśa, having three eyes and eight arms, realistically curved and painted with dry lacquer technique introduced from China. His two central hands are pressed in front in the praying gesture, holding the cintāmaṇi, while the other hands hold emblems that include a lotus, pilgrim's staff, and lasso. A separate piece of lacquered cloth covers the shoulders to represent the deer skin. The halo and light rays behind the statue are rendered in openwork metal, with attached flame patterns. The figure appears heavy, with drapery folds hanging on the two legs. The creation of this image is thought to have been a response to Emperor Shomu's decree that provincial temples install statues of this divinity.1,2,26<br /><br />Formerly, a huge picture scroll of cloth representing Amoghapāśa was hanging in the Hall of the Great Buddha (Daibutsuden) of the Tōdaiji. The figure of the Bodhisatta was 35 feet high and 25 feet wide. It had been constructed by the order of Empress Kōken to console the late Empress Dowager Kōmyō, her mother who was a worshipper of Amoghapāśa. Due to the perishable nature of the material, the hangings no longer exist, but more than 1000 characters of the inscriptions along the borders of the hangings have been recorded.1,26<br /><br />Daianji was an important state-sponsored temple in the first half of the eighth century before being eclipsed by Todaiji which was dedicated in 752. During 749, at Daianji in Nara, a painting of Vairocana Buddha (30 shaku tall) was installed as the main icon, flanked by paintings of Amoghapāśa and Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara (15 shaku tall each). These were thought to precede the iconography of the triad of Vairocana and two Avalokiteśvaras at Todaiji.<br />Carved in wood in the Single-block technique, a standing Amoghapāśa of Daianji, has eight arms; the attributes held in various hands have been lost (Fig. 9). The face and body are rendered fully, while the jewelry and drapery on the surface are naturalistically carved and detailed. This heavy style is found in sculptures of mid-to late eighth-century associated with the Todaiji and Toshodaiji workshops, including the Sangatsudo Amoghapāśa. The Amoghapāśa images at Ratnagiri in India, during 8th–10th centuries, all have four to six arms and do not show the deer skin. They appear to have no connections to these early Japanese examples.2,27<br /><br /><br /> <br />Iconography of Early Images of Amoghapāśa from Java, Sumatra and Bali<br />No existing text from Indonesia mentions the Amoghapāśa form of Avalokiteśvara. A sādhana written by Kaśmīri Śakyaśrībadra (1127-1225), now present only in its Tibetan translation, describes the white Amoghapāśa. The Jago Amoghapāśa closely fits this description, though he lacks the antelope skin upavīta. This sādhana also mentions Amoghapāśa’s attendants Hayagrīva, Sudhanakumāra, Bhṛkuṭī and Tārā.7 <br /><br />The remarkably beautiful statues of the Bodhisatta Amoghapāśa Lokeśvara and his retinue are found at Candi Jago in East Java have been cited as evidence of a new wave of religious and stylistic influences from the Pāla kingdom in eastern India. The Amoghapāśa statues found here are assisted by four attendants, four cosmic buddhas (Jina Buddhas) and their four śakti. Of the thirteen statues that originally made up this Amoghapāśa maṇḍala, only the central image remains in situ (Fig. 10), standing in the courtyard of the temple.7 <br /><br />Though the central stone stele of Amoghapāśa is damaged, with the head and several hands missing, but it reflects former grandeur (Fig. 10). From the ankle to the neck it measures 1.5 meters. He wears a damaged waistband and a long sarong with shallow folds on either side of his legs and also running down the middle. On the upper right thigh the face of a tiger can be seen and the legs of this tiger skin drape down onto each of the thighs. On either side of him are lotus plants that grow up from wavy lines that look like roots. This is thought to be a hallmark of Singasari-period sculpture. According to Stamford Raffles, who visited Jago in 1815; the image’s head had been removed and taken to Malang by a Dutch man several years earlier. Despite the removal of the head of the statue, the three folds of the neck (trivala) are still visible on the torso. Though most of the attributes in the hands are damaged, but the most important attribute still preserved for identification of this statue is the pāśa or noose held in the second uppermost right hand. The figure’s uppermost right hand holds an akṣamālā (rosary) and the other two lower right hands are broken. On the left side, the uppermost hand holds a book, the next is missing, the third hand holds a stick like object which could be a lotus stem and the lower hand is also missing. The statues of Amoghapāśa’s attendants were also found at Jago and they were much better preserved than the main image. Today, all four attendants stand together at the Museum Nasional in Jakarta, Indonesia.7 Stylistically; the statues that comprise the Amoghapāśa maṇḍala are remarkably different from the bas-reliefs that encircle the temple. These reliefs have a flattening abstraction of the human figures resembling that of traditional Javanese shadow-puppets. The free-standing sculpture of Amoghapāśa and is attendants, in strong contrast, are naturalistic. The difference in styles provides the evidence that these images were imported from India or made by immigrant sculptors and their students.7 <br /><br />Another image of Amoghapāśa was produced by King Kṛtanagara, the last of the Singasai dynasty in an attempt to replicate the image at Jago (Fig. 11). This sculpture, which was found near Rambahan in West Sumatra, has three inscriptions: a dated one at the base (1286), another on the back of the stele and a third at the feet of the deity. The second inscription is from the mid-fourteenth century; the third is highly eroded and has never been translated. The stone stele has borne significant damage, especially at the top.7 <br />An image of Amoghapāśa was also found in Bali (Fig. 12), which is now restored in a closed shrine at the Pura Puseh in Kutri, central Bali. The figure stands in a stiff stance against a plain stele, with a raised halo around the head. His dress and ornaments are elaborate. There are three bracelets around the each wrist, numerous bows and slashes at his waist, and large pleats of fabric that fall by his knees and twisted upward over his hands. His attributes are slightly different from the Jago Amoghapāśa. On his left side from bottom to top he holds a kamaṇḍalu (vase), a missing attribute, a śaṅkha (conch) and a padma (lotus). On his right, his lower hand is broken, then akṣamālā (rosary), nāga (snake) and an angkuśa (elephant prod). Here, the conch replaces the book and the angkuśa replaces the abhaya mudrā. The nāga might be transformed into nāgapāśa (snake noose) in later images. Though the face of this image is severely damaged, but Stutterheim proposed that the image was a portrait of Dhammawangśa (Wiṣṇuwardhana),28 a Balinese ruler (1022-1026) known for his inscriptions.7<br /><br /><br /><br /> <br />Conclusion<br />The cult of Amoghapāśa, originating from India, was widespread at Dunhuang and in Sichuan, Java, Sumatra, Bali, Japan and received impetus from the Himalayan tradition as well as local adaptations. Though the Amoghapāśahṛdaya Mahāyāna-sūtra also describes the iconography in making images of this Bodhisatta, and the rituals attending the worship, but the study of images shows a wide variation in following these instructions. Numerous early appearances of Amoghapāśa images outside of India provide the evidence that widespread popularity of Amoghapāśa was not limited to surviving texts. The oppression associated with the revival of Hinduism followed by the Muslim invasion of the Gangetic plains had led to the widespread destruction of Buddhist monasteries and mass killing of Buddhist monks during the 12th Century CE. This had resulted in the extinction of this Amoghapāśa cult from India, which was its place of origin. However, the various traditions of representation of Amoghapāśa, which had evolved independently in India and East Asia during the eighth to tenth centuries6,7, need to be investigated in detail for better understanding of the history of evolution of Buddhist art and archeology.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-41488817996446025342009-10-25T04:47:00.000-07:002009-10-25T04:48:48.704-07:00APPLIED BUDDHISM IN MODERN SCIENCEThis is a preview version. To order the complete book, please visit “Bookstore” of website: http://www.unibook.com <br />Or Click on: http://www.unibook.com/unibook/site/bookdetail/?bookid=8374<br /><br /><br />APPLIED BUDDHISM IN MODERN SCIENCE<br />EPISODE 1<br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br />Hong Kong, 2009<br /><br /><br /> <br />Background: Dr. Ankur Barua had graduated with distinction from the University of Hong Kong (MBuddStud, 2009). He had also completed two other Master Degrees, one from Sikkim Manipal University (MBAIT, 2007) while the other from Manipal University (MBBS-2000, MD in Community Medicine - 2003) and presently working in professional field. Ms. M.A. Basilio is a nursing professional who has also a keen passion for conducting research on religion and science.<br /><br /><br />First Publication on 26th August 2009<br />Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong<br /><br /><br />Copyright © Ankur Barua and M.A.Basilio<br /><br /><br />Communication Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />Block – EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,<br />Salt Lake City, Sector-2,<br />Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br />Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong Kong)<br /> <br />Contents<br /><br />Items Page No.<br /><br />Acknowledgements 04<br />Preface 05<br />The Concept of Applied Buddhism 06<br />Buddhist Approach towards Environmental Protection in Perspective of Green Buddhism 09<br />Dependent Origination and Modern Cosmology 24<br />Quantum and the Concept of Matter in Abhidhamma 37<br />Double Truth and Relativity 48<br />Concluding Remarks 64<br /> <br />Acknowledgements<br /><br />I wish to express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to Ven. Dr. Aniruddha, Prof. Y. Karunadasa and Ven. Dr. Guang Xing, the eminent professors at the Centre of Buddhist Studies in the University of Hong Kong for their constant encouragement, constructive criticism, personal attention and valuable guidance throughout this work.<br /><br />I acknowledge gratefully Ven. Dr. Jing Yin, Professor of Buddhist Studies and Director of the Centre of Buddhist Studies in the University of Hong Kong for his kind support, inspiration, encouragement and timely advice during the compilation of this book.<br /><br />I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my beloved father Dr. Dipak Kumar Barua, who was the earlier Dean of the Faculty Council for Postgraduate Studies in Education, Journalism & Library Science in the University of Calcutta (1987-1991) and the Director of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda (1996-1999) for his technical guidance and valuable advice on various aspects of the Pali language. <br /><br />I would also like to convey my sincere thanks to my beloved mother Mrs. Dipa Barua for showing keen interest and providing constant assistance and support during this endeavor.<br /><br />Ankur Barua<br /> <br />Preface<br /><br />The term “Applied Buddhism” explains how every person can relate Buddhist ideas in his or her daily life and in profession. This book is a humble endeavour to motivate the new learners and provide them first-hand guidance on the vastness of the Philosophical approach of Buddhism. This book is a simplified version and provides guidance on how to apply the principles of the Doctrine of the Buddha in our day to day life in an effective manner. <br /><br />In recent times, some of the new concepts that have evolved in Buddhism are Engaged Buddhism, Social Buddhism, Socially Engaged Buddhism and Green Buddhism. “Applied Buddhism” is an effort to integrate all these scattered aspects of Buddhism under one single and unified concept. Through this Applied Buddhism, one should be able to follow Buddhism without being a Buddhist.<br /><br /><br />Ankur Barua & M.A. Basilio<br /> <br /> <br />THE CONCEPT OF APPLIED BUDDHISM<br /><br />Introduction<br /> “Applied Buddhism” is the application of Buddhist teachings in our daily life. It is a broad umbrella under which all the essential aspects of life such as physical, mental, social and spiritual wellbeing as well as philosophical, bioethical, financial and modern scientific aspects could be incorporated. This includes the Buddhist ideas practiced by the three major schools of Buddhist thoughts in modern era, namely the Theravada, Mahayana and Tantrayana (Tibetan) traditions. Apart from the commonly discussed philosophical and psychological aspects, more emphasis is given here on the traditional culture and social aspects of Buddhism. <br /><br />“Applied Buddhism” also shares valuable information on Buddhist contributions to modern science, health and wellbeing. As our concept of wellbeing is directly related to our mental and spiritual health, Buddhist Meditational practices are given the prime importance for prevention of mental illnesses and recommended for incorporation in the regimen of regular psychotherapy and in primary and secondary school curriculum as a part of primordial prevention. <br /><br /><br />Importance of Applied Buddhism<br />Without disrespecting the significance of religious rituals, the myths and beliefs and traditional local ceremonial practices related to Buddhism are however, carefully extracted and excluded from this domain of “Applied Buddhism”. <br /> <br />This is intentionally done in order to make the Buddhist ideas more acceptable to people belonging other religious realms and cultural backgrounds. The idea behind this is to enable people practice Buddhism without being converted into a Buddhist. One should understand that Buddhism is not just a religion, but a way of life. <br /><br />In order to incorporate Buddhist ideas in daily life, one need not give up his or her own religion. Just that one can remain spiritual without being religious, in the same way; one can practice Buddhist teachings without formally being a Buddhist. <br /><br /><br />Applied Aspect of Buddhism: Integration of Buddhist Philosophy with Activities in Daily Life<br />Thus, the term “Applied Buddhism” explains how every person can relate Buddhist ideas in his or her daily life and in profession. The main focus of this new concept is to diffuse the teachings of the Buddha in every nook and corner of the society, so that all sentient beings, irrespective of their religion, culture and creed can benefit from it. In recent times, some of the new concepts that have evolved in Buddhism are Engaged Buddhism, Social Buddhism, Socially Engaged Buddhism and Green Buddhism. Like the “String Theory” of quantum physics, “Applied Buddhism” is an effort to integrate all these scattered aspects of Buddhism under one single and unified concept in order to make it more appealing to the global community. Through this Applied Buddhism, one should be able to follow Buddhism without being a Buddhist.<br /><br /><br /> <br />Evolution of the Concept of Applied Buddhism <br />The term “Applied Buddhism” was first coined by an eminent Buddhist Scholar from India, Dr. Dipak Kumar Barua. He was the elected Dean of the Faculty Council for Postgraduate Studies in Education, Journalism & Library Science in the University of Calcutta, West Bengal, India (1987-1991) and the Director of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda (a Deemed University) in Nalanda, Bihar, India (1996-1999). He had discussed at length about this new concept of “Applied Buddhism” in his Book entitled, “Applied Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern Perspectives”. This book was first published during the year 2005 by the Centre of Buddhist Studies, under the aegis of the Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies of the Banaras Hindu University in India. However, due to limited publications and restricted circulation of this book within the country, the new concept of “Applied Buddhism” could not be popularized outside India for quite some time. However, during the later years, this new concept was widely appreciated by the renowned scholars in various intellectual forums throughout the world. The common people from varied religious background also found comfort in easy understanding of the principle teachings of the Buddha.<br /><br /><br />Conclusion<br />This new concept of the applied aspect of Buddhism is destined to bridge the gap of understanding that exists due to misinterpretation of the teachings of the Buddha by people belonging to diverse religious backgrounds. Once popularized and accepted, it would pave the way in promoting peace and harmony in the society. Applied Buddhism is also a noble endeavor to integrate the Buddhist philosophy with modern science and technology. This applied philosophy is an integral part of our daily life and is expected to be accepted by everyone without any discrimination.<br /> <br />Concluding Remarks<br /><br />Like the “String Theory” of quantum physics, “Applied Buddhism” is an effort to integrate all the practical aspects of Buddhism under one single umbrella in order to make it more appealing and easily conceivable by the global community. Through this Applied Buddhism, one should be able to practically apply the teachings of the Buddha in his day to day life, without taking up Buddhism as a religion. Thus, Buddhism would live forever and passed on from generation to generation through the innovative interpretations of the Doctrines of the Buddha.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-29476680877622478032009-10-21T22:35:00.000-07:002009-10-21T22:36:17.989-07:00The Concept Of Applied BuddhismThe Concept Of Applied Buddhism<br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br />The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br /><br /><br />Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,<br />SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,<br /> KOLKATA – 700 091<br />WEST BENGAL, INDIA<br />Tel: +91-33-23215586<br />Mobile: +919434485543<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br /> <br />The Concept Of Applied Buddhism<br /><br /><br />Introduction<br /> “Applied Buddhism” is the application of Buddhist teachings in our daily life. It is a broad umbrella under which all the essential aspects of life such as physical, mental, social and spiritual wellbeing as well as philosophical, bioethical, financial and modern scientific aspects could be incorporated. This includes the Buddhist ideas practiced by the three major schools of Buddhist thoughts in modern era, namely the Theravada, Mahayana and Tantrayana (Tibetan) traditions. Apart from the commonly discussed philosophical and psychological aspects, more emphasis is given here on the traditional culture and social aspects of Buddhism. <br /><br />“Applied Buddhism” also shares valuable information on Buddhist contributions to modern science, health and wellbeing. As our concept of wellbeing is directly related to our mental and spiritual health, Buddhist Meditational practices are given the prime importance for prevention of mental illnesses and recommended for incorporation in the regimen of regular psychotherapy and in primary and secondary school curriculum as a part of primordial prevention. <br /><br /><br />Importance of Applied Buddhism<br />Without disrespecting the significance of religious rituals, the myths and beliefs and traditional local ceremonial practices related to Buddhism are however, carefully extracted and excluded from this domain of “Applied Buddhism”. This is intentionally done in order to make the Buddhist ideas more acceptable to people belonging other religious realms and cultural backgrounds. The idea behind this is to enable people practice Buddhism without being converted into a Buddhist. One should understand that Buddhism is not just a religion, but a way of life. <br /><br />In order to incorporate Buddhist ideas in daily life, one need not give up his or her own religion. Just that one can remain spiritual without being religious, in the same way; one can practice Buddhist teachings without formally being a Buddhist. <br /><br /><br />Applied Aspect of Buddhism: Integration of Buddhist Philosophy with Activities in Daily Life<br />Thus, the term “Applied Buddhism” explains how every person can relate Buddhist ideas into his or her daily life and in profession. The main focus of this new concept is to diffuse the teachings of the Buddha in every nook and corner of the society, so that all sentient beings, irrespective of their religion, culture and creed can benefit from it. In recent times, some of the new concepts that have evolved in Buddhism are Engaged Buddhism, Social Buddhism, Socially Engaged Buddhism and Green Buddhism. Like the “String Theory” of quantum physics, “Applied Buddhism” is an effort to integrate all these scattered aspects of Buddhism under one single and unified concept in order to make it more appealing to the global community. Through this Applied Buddhism, one should be able to follow Buddhism without being a Buddhist.<br /><br /><br />Evolution of the Concept of Applied Buddhism <br />The term “Applied Buddhism” was first coined by an eminent Buddhist Scholar from India, Dr. Dipak Kumar Barua. He was the elected Dean of the Faculty Council for Postgraduate Studies in Education, Journalism & Library Science in the University of Calcutta, West Bengal, India (1987-1991) and the Director of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda (a Deemed University) in Nalanda, Bihar, India (1996-1999). He had discussed at length about this new concept of “Applied Buddhism” in his Book entitled, “Applied Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern Perspectives”. <br /><br />This book was first published during the year 2005 by the Centre of Buddhist Studies, under the aegis of the Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies of the Banaras Hindu University in India. However, due to limited publications and restricted circulation of this book within the country, the new concept of “Applied Buddhism” could not be popularized outside India for quite some time. However, during the later years, this new concept was widely appreciated by the renowned scholars in various intellectual forums throughout the world. The common people from varied religious background also found comfort in easy understanding of the principle teachings of the Buddha.<br /><br /><br />Conclusion<br />This new concept of the applied aspect of Buddhism is destined to bridge the gap of understanding that exists due to misinterpretation of the teachings of the Buddha by people belonging to diverse religious backgrounds. Once popularized and accepted, it would pave the way in promoting peace and harmony in the society. Applied Buddhism is also a noble endeavor to integrate the Buddhist philosophy with modern science and technology. This applied philosophy is an integral part of our daily life and is expected to be accepted by everyone without any discrimination.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-77164600216169628412009-10-21T22:34:00.002-07:002009-10-21T22:35:37.207-07:00The Bodhisatta Concept In Theravāda BuddhismThe Bodhisatta Concept In Theravāda Buddhism<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br /><br />The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br /><br /><br /><br />Corresponding address:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,<br />SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,<br /> KOLKATA – 700 091<br />WEST BENGAL, INDIA<br />Tel: +91-33-23215586<br />Mobile: +919434485543<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br /> <br />The Bodhisatta Concept In Theravāda Buddhism<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />In Theravāda Buddhism, the Bodhisatta concept (Pāli: Bodhisatta, Sanskrit: Bodhisattva) is considered to be seeking enlightenment so that, once awakened, one can efficiently aid other beings to develop an insight to know things as truly as they are.1,2 The Buddha's previous life experiences as a Bodhisatta before Buddhahood are recorded in the texts of the Jataka. Lay Buddhists of Theravāda tradition often seek inspiration in his skills as a good layman from these texts, which not only account his historical life, but also many other previous lives.1,3 <br /><br /><br />Etymology1,2,3<br />Bodhisatta is a being who aspires for Bodhi or Enlightenment. The concept of Bodhisatta (meaning Buddha-to-be) is one of the most important concepts in Buddhism. Etymologically the term can be separated into two parts, bodhi and sattva: bodhi from the root budh, to be awake, means 'awakening' or 'enlightenment' and 'sattva' derived from sant, the present participle of the root as, 'to be', means 'a being' or 'one who is' or 'a sentient being.' Hence, the term is taken to mean 'one whose essence is Enlightenment' or 'enlightened knowledge'. By implication it means a seeker of the enlightenment and a Buddha-to-be. There is also a suggestion that the Pāli term may be derived from bodhi and satta, (Skt. sakta from sanj) 'one who is attached to or desires to gain enlightenment.' In original Pāli texts of early Buddhism, the term Bodhisatta was used more exclusively to designate Gotama Buddha prior to his enlightenment.<br /><br /><br />The Concept of Plurality Buddhas and Bodhisattas in Theravāda Tradition<br />The concept of Bodhisatta, along with that of Buddha and of the cakravartin (world-ruler), was in vogue in India even before the appearance of Gotama Buddha. When Prince Siddhattha (who later became Gotama Buddha) took conception in the womb of Queen Maya, a seer predicted that this son would become either a world-ruler (cakravartin) or a Buddha. While answering a question by a Brahmin, Gotama Buddha himself once admitted that he was not a god, but a Buddha. This implies that he indirectly meant that he was one in the lineage of buddhas.3,4<br /><br />A well-known Pāli stanza states that: sabbapapassa akaranam, kusalassa upasampada,sacittapariyodapanam<br />etam buddhana sasanam. This proves that it contains the teachings of not just a single Buddha, but of all the Buddhas. The Amagandha Sutta is similarly recorded as a discourse not of Gotama Buddha but of a past Buddha named Kassapa.3,4<br /><br />Sammasambodhi or Perfect Enlightenment is an impersonal universal phenomenon occurring at a particular context both in time and space. So, the Buddha is a person who re-discovers the Dhamma, which had become lost to the world. Gotama Buddha himself, as well as others, used the term Bodhisatta to indicate his career from the time of his renunciation up to the time of his enlightenment. During the later period, use of this term “Bodhisatta” was extended to denote the period from Gotama's conception to the enlightenment. Thereafter, this term was used to refer all the Buddhas from their conception to Buddhahood. By applying the doctrine of kamma and rebirth, which had general acceptance even in pre-Buddhist India, the use of the term “Bodhisatta” was further extended to refer to the past lives of Gotama Buddha and all those who aspire for Perfect Enlightenment.3,4,5,6,7<br /><br />The Mahāpadāna Suttanta, belonging to the oldest Theravāda tradition, gives details of six Buddhas prior to Gotama. This discourse is attributed to the Buddha himself, who gives the time, caste, family, length of life etc. of his predecessors. After briefly outlining the lives of these six buddhas, Gotama begins an in-depth recollection of the first buddha, Vipassii, from his life in Tusita heaven until he dispersed his monks for the purpose of spreading the teachings. In this narration, Gotama not only refers to Vipassii up to his enlightenment as a Bodhisatta, but also takes the life events of Vipassii as the example for all future Bodhisattas and buddhas, including himself. Another section of the sutta-pitaka where the term "Bodhisatta" pertains to each of the six previous buddhas is the Samyutta Nikāya.3,5,6,7<br />In the Buddhavaṃsa, a later work belonging to the Khuddaka Nikāya, the number of buddhas increases to twenty-five with Gotama Buddha as the last and this number remain fixed in Theravāda tradition. However, in the Mahāpadāna Suttanta the Buddha started the story of the six Buddhas merely by saying that ninety-one kappas ago there was such and such a Buddha. This indirectly implies that the Buddhas are not limited by number. So, if the Buddhas are innumerable, the Bodhisattas too must be innumerable.3,5,6,7<br /><br />The Pāli Canon had also mentioned the name of Metteya (Pāli: Metteya, Sanskrit: Maitreya) as the future Buddha after Sakyamuni or Gotama Buddha. But in the Pāli Canon, he is not referred to as a Bodhisatta. Instead, he is simply regarded as the next fully-awakened Buddha to come into existence long after the current teachings of the Buddha are lost. In the Cakkavattisīhanādasutta of the Dīgha Nikāya, the Gotama Buddha foretold that in future, an Exalted One named Metteya, who is Fully Awakened [i.e., sammāsambuddha] and adorned with wisdom and goodness, will arise.Though Metteya is the only future Buddha mentioned specifically in the Pāli Canons, but the possibility of attaining Buddhahood is not restricted solely to him. 1,3,5,8 <br /><br />In the Sampasādanīyasutta of the Dīgha Nikāya, it is mentioned that in future, there will be other Supreme buddhas equal to Gotama in the matter of Enlightenment. Thus, the term "Bodhisatta" was no longer used solely in conjunction with Gotama or other past buddhas or Metteya. The Bodhisatta-yāna was regarded as a difficult, but possible path open to anyone who desires to attain the Buddhahood.3,5,8<br /><br />In later Theravāda literature, the term Bodhisatta is fairly frequent in the sense of someone on the path to enlightenment. The later Pāli commentarial tradition also recognizes the existence of two additional types of Bodhisattas. These are the paccekabodhisatta who will attain Paccekabuddhahood and the Sāvakabodhisatta who will attain enlightenment as a disciple of a Samyaksambuddha [i.e., sammāsambuddha].1,3<br /><br /><br />Textual Transmission of the Bodhisatta Concept in Theravāda Buddhism<br />The use of the term "Bodhisatta" occurs in a number of the suttas (Pāli: sutta, Sanskrit: sutra) in the Majjhima, Anguttara, and Samyutta Nikāyas. In addition to referring to the present life of Gotama, the term "Bodhisatta" is also used in relation to the penultimate life of Gotama in Tusita (Pāli: Tusita) heaven, as well as his conception and birth. In later canonical texts, the Bodhisatta ideal is further developed and associated with numerous concepts such as the concept of a Bodhisatta vow. This is believed to have been introduced from the Mahāyāna tradition which upholds the 'Bodhisatta ideal.' In the Suttanipāta, the Bodhisatta ideal is also associated with the quality of compassion.1,3,5<br /><br />(A) Bodhisatta Concept in Pre-commentarial Literature<br />T. Sugimoto had analyzed the contexts in which the word “Bodhisatta” is employed in the Nikāyas. He had suggested six different usages of the term “Bodhisatta” in the Nikāyas, which are as follows:8<br />(1) The Bodhisatta who is imperfect and immature<br />(2) The Bodhisatta who is still imperfect but surpassing that state<br />(3) The Bodhisatta who is a wanderer and an ascetic<br />(4) The Bodhisatta who is the master of meditation and a seer of the dhamma<br />(5) The Bodhisatta at the time of his conception and birth<br />(6) The Bodhisatta who dreams of the five great dreams<br /><br />All these types of Bodhisatta depicted in the Nikāyas can be broadly summarized into main two usages:8<br />(A) The Bodhisatta referring to the state before the attainment of Enlightenment in the life of Gotama Buddha. Here, the Bodhisatta is depicted as the One seeking higher knowledge.<br />(B) The Bodhisatta as a generic term referring to the previous existence of any Buddha in the past. This theory is based on the acceptance on plurality of the buddhas.<br /><br />In the Khuddaka Nikāya, the word “Bodhisatta” does not occur as often as in the other four Nikāyas, but there is further development of this concept found here. The old stratum of Khuddaka Nikāya includes the last two chapers of Suttanipāta while the new stratum includes texts like Buddhavaṃsa, Cariyāpiṭaka and Apadāna.<br /><br />(a) The Suttanipāta refers to Gotama Bodhisatta as a being who was born in this world for happiness and wheal of the people (hitasukhatāya). This idea of a compassionate Bodhisatta is also expressed in the Canon.3,8<br /><br />(b) In the Buddhavaṃsa, the Bodhisatta ideal is developed to the greatest extent. The Buddhavaṃsa is entirely based on the history of Gotama Buddha’s career as the Bodhisatta from the time of making his abhinīhāra (resolve) before Dīpańkara Buddha to become a Buddha in the future. Under each and every past Buddha, Gotama Bodhisatta receives a declaration (vyākaraṇa) that he would be the Buddha named Gotama in distant future. Here, the term “Bodhisatta” refers to an ideal person, who makes a vow to become a fully and completely enlightened Buddha (sammāsambuddha) out of compassion for all sentient beings. He performs various acts of merit and finally receives a prophecy of his future Buddhahood. In addition, he had also made a vow to become a Bodhisatta only after the attainment of arahantship. This is portrayed in the chronicle of Sumedha, where he was lying in the mud and offering his body to the Dīpańkara Buddha to walk on.3,8<br /><br /><br />According to the Buddhavaṃsa and Cariyāpiṭaka, there are eight conditions (aṭṭhadhammā) which are mentioned as the preconditions for anyone to become a Bodhisatta and ten preconditions (pāramī) are to be practiced and fulfilled to become a Buddha. In this aspect, the Jātaka stories might be a later fabrication in an attempt to connect the mode of fulfillment of pāramīs with the varied forms of existences of the Gotama Bodhisatta. The generalization of preliminaries leading to Buddhahood was thus introduced for the first time in Pāli tradition and it further developed in the Aṭṭhakathā literature.3,8<br /><br />More expanded use of the term "Bodhisatta" is explicitly expressed in the Khuddakapātha. In the eighth chapter of this canonical text (the Nidhikandasutta), the goal of Buddhahood is presented as a goal that should be pursued by certain exceptional beings. The sutta mentions a type of treasure that is more permanent and which follows beings from birth to birth. This treasure results from giving (dāna), morality (sīla), abstinence (samyama), and observing restraint (dama). This treasure fulfills all desires, leads to a rebirth in a beautiful body and leads to rebirth in the human realm from which liberation is possible. Moreover, the qualities of charity, virtue, abstinence and restraint would lead to the wisdom which produces the "bliss of Extinguishment" of Arahants or pratyekabuddhas or completely enlightened buddhas.3,8,9<br /><br />The Udāna also mentions the word “Bodhisatta” at one place, but it is with reference to the mothers of Bodhisattas. It predicts that mothers of all Bodhisattas would die within seven days after their birth. It is the Dhammatā (general nature) that certain things are predetermined for a Bodhisatta these are his parents, Bodhi tree, chief disciples (aggasāvakā), son and attendant (upaṭṭhāka).8<br /><br /><br />(B) Bodhisatta Concept in Commentarial Literature<br />Dhammapāla was a commentator who showed greater interest in the dissemination of the Bodhisatta doctrine and introduce new concepts in the Theravāda tradition. Through the Buddhavaṃsa and Cariyāpiṭaka contain certain ingredients that can be regarded as the precursors of later developments in the commentaries, but the Bodhisatta concept gained acceleration and diversification in the Theravāda tradition in the form of Aṭṭhakathā literature.3,8<br /><br />The word “bodhi” is a nominative derivative of the root “budh” (meaning to be awake, enlightened etc.) and it means enlightenment or supreme knowledge. The canonical texts give its meanings as the realization of the Four Noble truths (arya-saccāni) and the Seven Factors of Enlightenment (bojjhaṅga). In the Aṭṭhakathā texts, a classic definition of the verbal form “bujjhati”, meaning awake or enlightened or the one who knows, is given in Atthasālini and Sammohavinodanī.8<br /><br />The interpretation of “bodhi” as the Four Noble Truths and Seven Factors of enlightenment testify clearly that it can be achieved by anyone and the attainment of them is what is termed as arahantship. In Theravāda tradition, though the term “sambodhi” was applied to Arahants as well, but the two terms “abhisambodhi” and “sammāsambodhi” were used exclusively for the buddhas. The Buddha’s designation of “sammāsambodhi” is explained in the commentarial texts as the knowledge which he attains rightly (sammā) and by himself (sāmaṃ). This also relates to the knowledge which is adorned (pasatthaṃ) and good (sundaraṃ). In other words, it is all that is to be discovered and known by a Buddha alone. When the word “bodhi” is described in the sense of knowledge (ñāṇa) in the Aṭṭhakathā texts, emphasis is given either in relation to the path leading to arahantship (arahattamaggañāṇa) or the omniscient knowledge (sabbaññutañāṇa). In commentarial literature, Buddhaghosa described the term “bodhi” in four different ways. These are: (1) Tree (rukkha) – referring to the Bodhi tree, (2) Path (magga), (3) Omniscient knowledge (sabbaññuta-ñāṇa) and (4) Nibbāna. The commentaries also discuss some definitions of the word “Bodhisatta” which are not found in the pre-commentarial literature. The Dīgha-aṭṭhakathā or Sumaṅgalavilāsinī describes the Bodhisatta as a wise being who is concerned with awakening; a being whose mind is attached to and bent on the four paths called “bodhi”.3,8,9<br /><br />Keeping with the tradition found in the Pāli Canons, the term “Bodhisatta” was used mainly as a term denoting the former existences of Gotama Buddha in the Milindapañha. However, the Samantapāsādikā describes the term “sāvaka-bodhi” as the attainment or knowledge of a disciple. However, the Papañcasūdanī, Manorathapūranī and Sāratthapakāsinī also provide similar of the term “Bodhisatta” as the one who is being attached to bodhi or knowledge. This is also described as the One, who is full of knowledge (ñāṇavā), insightful (paññavā) and wise (paṇḍito).3,8<br /><br />The meanings of the term “Bodhisatta” according to the commentaries can thus be classified into four categories:8<br />(1) A wise or insightful being<br />(2) A being on the way to awakening <br />(3) A being worthy of attaining sammāsambodhi or striving for it<br />(4) A being attached to or inclined towards bodhi<br /><br />Thus, the Theravādins began to formulate a new classification of Bodhisatta in the Aṭṭhakathā literature and its development followed a natural corollary resulting from the interpretations of the word Bodhi. So, the interpretation of Bodhisatta in the Theravāda tradition now rests on two premises:8<br />(a) One who seeks catumagga-ñāṇa<br />(b) One who is worthy of attaining sammāsambodhi<br /><br />The late Aṭṭhakathā texts made three distinctions on the existing Bodhisatta concept. Along with the gradation of Mahā-bodhisatta (Buddha-to-be), pacceka-bodhisatta and sāvaka-bodhisatta, the commentarial literature added some qualities to distinguish them from one another. Thus, there appeared the qualifying words in the Aṭṭhakathā texts like mahāsatta, mahāsambodhisatta, mahābodhisatta and sabbaññu-bodhisatta.3,8,9 <br /><br /><br />Later Development of the Bodhisatta Concept in Theravāda Buddhism<br />The social importance of the Bodhisatta concept found in the Aṭṭhakathā should also be considered to be pertinent to the development of the Bodhisatta ideal in Sri Lanka. An attempt had been made in the past to merge the personality of Bodhisatta from commentarial texts with the ideal individual socially and ethically. Common people began to respect him not only as a person with highest virtues, but also a person with utmost administrative capability. The idea that anyone may become a Buddha by following the Bodhisatta-yāna was only present in seed form in the Theravāda Buddhist Pāli Canon. But later this concept was taken up seriously by the Theravādins. Numerous Theravādin kings, monks and textual copyists had taken the Bodhisatta vow and were following the Bodhisatta-yāna to the eventual attainment of Buddhahood. The relationship between kings and Bodhisattas has its source in the Bodhisatta career of Gotama as depicted not only in his life as Prince Siddhattha, but also in his penultimate earthly life when he was King Vessantara. The Bodhisatta exhibited his compassion by fulfilling the perfection of giving as King Vessantara. He gave away his elephant to alleviate a drought in nearby Kāliṅga. He gave away his wealth, his kingdom even his wife and children and was even willing to give away his own life out of compassion for other beings.3,10,11 <br /><br />The paradigm for close association between the institution of kingship and Buddhahood originally came from Gotama, when he was a Bodhisatta. This was later adopted by Theravādin kings by the second century B.C. The Bodhisatta-like compassion was also exhibited by King Duttagāmanī, Sirisamghabodhi and Upatissa of Sri Lanka. By the eighth century C.E., the amalgamation between the institution of kingship and Bodhisattas became even stronger. During this time, certain Theravādin kings in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand had openly declared themselves as the Bodhisattas.3,10, 11<br /><br />It might be argued that these Bodhisatta kings were influenced by the Mahāyāna doctrines when they adopted certain qualities of the Bodhisatta or took the Bodhisatta vow. But this does not dismiss the fact that the Bodhisatta ideal was taken seriously by Theravādin kings. The Bodhisatta ideal obtained a prominent place in Theravāda Buddhist theory and practice. A king might be influenced by Mahāyāna ideas at a given point of time. But this does not mean that certain Theravāda doctrines, including the ideas of a Bodhisatta as found in the Buddhavaṃsa and Cariyāpiṭaka, were not equally influential.3,10,11<br /><br />The presence of a Bodhisatta ideal in Theravāda Buddhism is also represented by the numerous examples of other Theravādins who have either referred to themselves or have been referred by others as Bodhisattas. The celebrated commentator Buddhaghosa was viewed by the monks of the Anuraadhapura monastery as being an incarnation of Metteya. There are also some instances of Theravādin monks who expressed their desire to become fully enlightened buddhas. After being deemed worthy of receiving certain secret teachings by his meditation teacher, bhikkhu Doratiyaaveye of Sri Lanka (ca. 1900), refused to practice such techniques. He felt that it would pose hindrance in his path to attain the level of arahant in this lifetime or within seven lives. He saw himself as a Bodhisatta who had already made a vow to attain Buddhahood in the future.3,10,11<br /><br />The vow to become a Buddha was also taken by certain Theravādin textual copyists and authors. The author of the commentary on the Jātaka (the Jātakāṭṭhakathā) concludes his work with the vow to complete the ten Bodhisatta perfections in the future so that he will become a Buddha and liberate the whole world with its gods from the bondage of repeated births and guide them to the most excellent and tranquil Nibbāna.9,10 Another example of a Theravādin author who wished to become a Buddha by following the Bodhisatta-yāna is the `Sri Lankan monk Mahā-Tipitaka Cūlābhaya. In his subcommentary on the “Questions of King Milinda” during the twelfth-century, he wrote that he wished to become a Buddha at the end of his work.9<br /><br /><br /> <br />Conclusion<br />When Prince Siddhattha attained Enlightenment and transformed himself into a Buddha from Bodhisatta, he did so as a human being and lived and passed away as such. He himself admitted that he was a Buddha and not a supernatural being. He was only the discoverer of a lost teaching. His greatness was that he found out what his contemporaries could not discover at all or only discovered partially. Both intellectually and morally he was a great man (mahapurisa) and a historical personality. However, when we analyze the term “Bodhisatta” in Theravāda Buddhism, it not only refers to Gotama and all previous buddhas before their enlightenment, but it also applies to any being who wishes to pursue the path to perfect Buddhahood.11,12 Though the Theravādins believe that anyone can become a Bodhisatta, they do not stipulate or insist that everyone must become a Bodhisatta as this is not considered to be reasonable. It is up to the individual to decide which path to take, that of the Srāvaka, that of the Pratyekabuddha, or that of the Samyaksambuddha [i.e., sammāsambuddha]. This concept resulted in a more general adherence to the ideal by numerous Theravādin kings, monks, scholars and even common people. 9<br /><br />The introduction of three kinds of Bodhisatta namely Mahā-Bodhisatta, Pacceka-Bodhisatta and Sāvaka-Bodhisatta by Dhammapāla is a new departure in the Theravāda doctrine and the Bodhisatta ideal became reserved for only certain exceptional people. Thus, when the path of Buddhahood was made more difficult during the process of exalting the buddhas, the Thravādins had to emphasize the importance of the following sāvaka-bodhi more than before as the alternative and easier way to emancipation. Though the glorification of buddhas bears the emotional and devotional significance for the Buddhists, but the accomplishment of sāvaka-bodhi is more practical.3,10,12 <br /><br />The Bodhisatta-yāna and the goal of Buddhahood were already accepted as one of three possible goals by followers of Theravāda Buddhism. However, this same goal was viewed as the only acceptable goal by the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Hence, it should be stressed that the change introduced by the Mahāyāna traditions was not an invention of a new ideology or any innovative thinking, but it was rather the adoption of an already accepted exceptional ideal and bringing it into prominence.12<br /> <br />References<br /><br />1. Holt, J.C. 1991. Buddha in the Crown: Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka. New York: Oxford University Press. <br />2. Kariyawasam, A.G.S. 2002. The Bodhisattva Concept. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. <br />3. Saddhatissa, H.1975. The Birth-Stories of the Ten Bodhisattas and the Dasabodhisattuppattikatha. Sacred Books of the Buddhists. London: Pāli Text Society 29: 38-39.<br />4. Ñāṇamoli, B. 1992. The life of the Buddha. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. <br />5. Gombrich,R. 1980. The Significance of Former Buddhas in the Theravādin Tradition. Buddhist Studies: In Honour of Walpola Rahula, ed. Somaratna Balasooriya et al. Gordon Fraser Gallery: 68.<br />6. Endo, T. 2009. The Buddha Concept in Theravada Buddhism. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies. The University of Hong Kong.<br />7. Endo, T. 2002. Buddha in Theravada Buddhism. Dehiwala.<br />8. Endo, T. 2009. The Bodhisatta Concept in Theravada Buddhism. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies. The University of Hong Kong.<br />9. Walpola, R. 1971. L'ideal du Bodhisatta dans le Theravāda et le Mahāyāna. Journal Asiatique: 69.<br />10. Cohen, R.S. 1995. Discontented Categories:Hiinayāna and Mahāyāna in Indian Buddhist History. Journal of the American Academy of Religion 63 (1):2-3.<br />11. Norman K.R. 1983. A History of Indian Literature. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz 7: 94.<br />12. Ray, R. 1994. Buddhist Saints in India: A Study of Buddhist Values and Orientations. London: Oxford University Press: 251.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-25794488561638860162009-10-21T22:34:00.001-07:002009-10-21T22:34:43.367-07:00Similarities And Differences Between Theravada And Mahayana BuddhismSimilarities And Differences Between Theravada And Mahayana Buddhism<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA, M.A. BASILIO<br /><br />The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br /><br /><br />Address of Corresponding Author:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,<br />SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,<br /> KOLKATA – 700 091<br />WEST BENGAL, INDIA<br />Tel: +91-33-23215586<br />Mobile: +919434485543<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br /> <br />Similarities And Differences Between Theravada And Mahayana Buddhism<br /><br /><br />Abstract<br /><br />The Theravada School of Buddhism was formally established at the Third Buddhist Council during the time of Emperor Asoka in the 3rd Century B.C. In the later period, the Mahayanists took a firm stand and the terms of Mahayana and Hinayana were introduced after the 1st Century A.D. However, during the 2nd Century A.D. Mahayana became clearly defined. There is hardly any difference between Theravada and Mahayana schools of Buddhism with regard to the fundamental teachings of the Buddha. Though there are many similarities, but there are some important aspects in which both schools of Buddhist thoughts differ from each other. The major aspects of these are – the Bodhisattva concept, the deification of the Buddha, emphasis on meditational aspect and the concept of emptiness or sunyata.<br /><br />Key Words: Bodhicitta, Bodhisattva, Deification, Meditation, Emptiness<br /> <br />Similarities And Differences Between Theravada And Mahayana Buddhism<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Introduction<br /><br />Many people often fail to understand the basic similarities and differences between Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism. Though the Theravada tradition follows the ancient teaching of the Buddha and remains close in form to early forms of Buddhism, but to understand things in their proper perspective, we need to review the history and trace the emergence and development of these two schools of Buddhism.1<br /><br /><br />The Theravada school admits the human nature of the Buddha, and is characterized by a psychological understanding of human nature; and emphasizes a meditative approach to the transformation of consciousness.2 The philosophy of this school is that all worldly phenomena are impermanent and transient; unsatisfactory and that there is nothing in them which can be regarded as one's own, substantial or permanent. The life of an Arahant is considered to be ideal and the perfect state of insight is called Nibanna, where all kamma and (future) births ends and there is no more returning to the worldly life.1,2,3<br /><br />It is generally accepted that Mahayana arose from the Mahasanghika sect, who adapted the existing monastic rules and also made alterations in the arrangements and interpretation of the Sutra (Discourses) and the Vinaya (Rules) texts. They rejected certain portions of the canon, which had been accepted in the First Council. Thus, the Mahayana tradition was more innovative with Indian writers continually adding to the canon of sacred scripture for some centuries.1,2 The Mahayana has three main distinguishing elements. Firstly, it emphasized the savior status and completely adopted the Bodhisattva path from the earlier traditions. Secondly, the Buddha was glorified as a transcendent being and this led to a new cosmology. Thirdly, a new understanding of meditation led to a new philosophical outlook and new interpretation of traditions. Though the Mahayana considered other forms of Buddhism as lesser vehicles, but it acted as an umbrella for a great variety of schools such as the Tantra school, the Pure Land, Ch'an and Zen Buddhist meditation schools.2,4<br /><br /><br />History of emergence of Theravada and Mahayana schools of Buddhism<br /><br />(1) Origin of Mahasanghika School of Buddhism<br />One hundred years after the first Buddhist Council, the Second Council was held to discuss some Vinaya rules. The orthodox monks declared that nothing should be changed while the others insisted on modifying some rules. Finally, a group of monks left the Council and formed the Mahasanghika - the Great Community.2,4<br />(2) Origin of Theravada School of Buddhism<br />In the 3rd Century B.C. during the time of Emperor Asoka, the Third Council was held to discuss the differences of opinion among the bhikkhus of different sects. At the end of this Council, the President of the Council, Moggaliputta Tissa, compiled a book called the Kathavatthu refuting the heretical, false views and theories held by some sects. The Abhidhamma Pitaka was included at this Council. The teaching approved and accepted by this Council was known as Theravada and Asoka's son, Ven. Mahinda, brought the Tripitaka and the commentaries to Sri Lanka.2,3<br /><br /><br />(3) Origin of Mahayana School of Buddhism<br />During 1st Century B.C. to 1st Century A.D., the two terms Mahayana and Hinayana appeared in the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra or the Sutra of the Lotus of the Good Law. After the 1st Century AD., the Mahayanists took a firm stand and the terms of Mahayana and Hinayana were introduced. Hinayana sects developed in India and had an existence independent from the form of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka (Theravada Buddhism). However, during the 2nd Century A.D. Mahayana became clearly defined. Nagarjuna developed the Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata and proved that everything is Void in a small text called Madhyamika-karika. About the 4th Century, there were Asanga and Vasubandhu who wrote enormous amount of works on Mahayana.2,4,5<br /><br /><br />Similarities between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism: 1,2<br />There is hardly any difference between Theravada and Mahayana with regard to the fundamental teachings of the Buddha. The following are the most important teachings of the Buddha which are all accepted by both schools: <br />(a) Both accept Sakyamuni Buddha as the Teacher.<br />(b) The Four Noble Truths are exactly the same in both schools.<br />(c) The Eightfold Path is exactly the same in both schools.<br />(d) The Paticca-samuppada or the Dependent Origination is the same in both schools.<br />(e) Both rejected the idea of a supreme being who created and governed this world.<br />(f) Both accept Anicca, Dukkha, Anatta and Sila, Samadhi, Panna without any difference.<br /><br /><br />Basic Differences between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism:<br />Though there are many similarities, but there are some important aspects in which both schools of Buddhist thoughts differ from each other. The major aspects of these are –<br /><br />(a) Bodhisattva Concept<br />Many people believe that Mahayana is for the Bodhisattvahood which leads to Buddhahood while Theravada is for Arahantship. It should be noted here that the Gautoma Buddha himself was also an Arahant. The ideal of the Mahayana school is that of the Bodhisattva, a person who delays his or her own enlightenment in order to compassionately assist all other beings and ultimately attains to the highest Bodhi. <br /><br />Some people imagine that Theravada is selfish because it teaches that people should seek their own salvation. But the question is, how can a selfish person gain Enlightenment? Both schools accept the three Yanas or Bodhis but consider the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest. The Mahayana has created many mystical Bodhisattvas while the Theravada considers a Bodhisattva as a man amongst us who devotes his entire life for the attainment of perfection, ultimately becoming a fully Enlightened Buddha for the welfare of the world, for the happiness of the world.4,6<br /><br /><br />(b) Glorification and subsequent Deification of the Buddha<br />The buddhas are considered to be lokottara (supramundane) and are connected only externally with the worldly life. This conception of the deification of the Buddha contributed much to the growth of the Mahayana philosophy.1,4<br /><br /><br />(c) Emphasis on Meditational Aspect<br />The Mahayana school gave more emphasis on meditation especially the Pure Land sect, whose essential teaching is that salvation can be attained only through absolute trust in the saving power of Amitabha and the followers should be longing to be reborn in his paradise through his grace.1,7<br /><br />(d) Sunyata<br />Some people think that Voidness or Sunyata discussed by Nagarjuna in his remarkable book; Madhyamika Karika is purely a Mahayana teaching. But it is actually based on the idea of Anatta or non-self, non-attachment and also on the Paticcasamuppada or the Dependent Origination, found in the original Theravada Pali texts. Besides the idea of Sunyata, there is the concept of store-consciousness in Mahayana Buddhism which has its seed in the Theravada texts. The Mahayanists have developed it into a deep psychology and philosophy.1,5<br /><br /> <br />Tabular Representation of Differences between Theravada and <br />Mahayana Buddhism1,2,3,4,6,7<br /><br /># TOPIC THERAVADA BUDDHISM MAHAYANA BUDDHISM<br />1 The Buddha Only the historical Gautama (Sakyamuni) Buddha and past buddhas are accepted. Besides Sakyamuni Buddha and past buddhas, other contemporary and cosmic buddhas like Vairochana, Amitabha and Medicine Buddha are also very popular.<br />2 Bodhisattvas Only Maitreya bodhisattva is accepted. Avalokitesvara, Mansjuri, Ksitigarbha and Samanthabadra are four very well known bodhisattvas besides Maitreya.<br />3 Objective of training Arahant or Pacceka-buddha. Buddhahood (via bodhisattva path).<br />4 Organization of Buddhist scriptures<br /> The Pali Canon is divided into 3 baskets (Tipitaka): Vinaya Pitaka of 5 books, Sutta Pitaka of 5 collections (many suttas) and Abhidhamma Pitaka of 7 books.<br /> The Mahayana Buddhist Canon also consists of Tripitaka of disciplines, discourses (sutras) and dharma analysis. It is usually organized in 12 divisions of topics like Cause and Conditions and Verses. It contains virtually all the Theravada Tipikata and many sutras that the latter does not have.<br />5 Concept of Bodhicitta Main emphasis is self liberation. <br />There is total reliance on one-self to eradicate all defilements. Besides self liberation, it is important for Mahayana followers to help other sentient beings.<br />6 Trikaya concept Very limited emphasis on the 3 bodies of a buddha. References are mainly on nirmana-kaya and dharma-kaya. Very well mentioned in Mahayana buddhism. Samboga-kaya or reward/enjoyment body completes the Trikaya concept.<br />7 Language of dharma teaching Tipitaka is strictly in Pali. Dhamma teaching in Pali supplemented by local language. Buddhist canon is translated into the local language (except for the 5 untranslatables), e.g. Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese. Original language of transmission is Sanskrit.<br />8 Language of Transmission Tripitaka is only in Pali. Teaching in Pali supplemented by local language. Scriptures translated into local language.<br />9 Transmission route Southern transmission: Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Laos and Cambodia and parts of Southeast Asia. Northern transmission: Tibet, China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Mongolia and parts of Southeast Asia.<br />10 Nibbana No distinction is made between nibbana attained by a buddha and that of an Arahant or Pacceka-buddha. Also known as 'liberation from Samsara,' there are subtle distinctions in the level of attainment for the three situations.<br />11 Sakyamuni Buddha's disciples Basically historical disciples, whether arahants or commoners. A lot of bodhisattvas are introduced by Sakyamuni Buddha. Most of these are not historical figures.<br />12 Rituals and liturgy There are some rituals but not heavily emphasized as in Mahayana schools. Owing to local cultural influences, there is much more emphasis on the use of rituals; e.g. Rituals for the deceased, feeding of Pretas, tantric formalities (in Vajrayana).<br /># TOPIC THERAVADA BUDDHISM MAHAYANA BUDDHISM<br />13 Use of Mantras and Mudras Some equivalent in the use of Parittas. Heavily practiced in the Vajrayana school of Mahayana Buddhism. Other schools also have included some mantras in their daily liturgy.<br />14 Dying and death aspects Very little research and knowledge on the process of dying and death. Usually, the dying persons are advised to meditate on impermanence, suffering and emptiness. The Vajrayana school is particularly meticulous in these areas. There are many inner and external signs manifested by people before they die. There is heavy stress in doing transference of merit practices in the immediate few weeks following death to assist in the deceased's next rebirth.<br />15 Bardo This in-between stage after death and before rebirth is ignored in Theravada school. All Mahayana schools teach this after death aspect.<br />16 One meal a day practice This is the norm among Theravada sanghas. This is a highly respected practice but it is left to the disposition of each individual in the various sanghas.<br />17 Vegetarianism This aspect is not necessary. In places like Thailand where daily morning rounds are still practiced, it is very difficult to insist on the type of food to be donated. Very well observed in all Mahayana schools (except the Tibetans due to the geographical circumstances). However, this aspect is not compulsory.<br />18 Focus of worship in the temple Simple layout with the image of Sakyamuni Buddha the focus of worship. Can be quite elaborate; with a chamber/hall for Sakyamuni Buddha and two disciples, one hall for the 3 buddhas (including Amitabha and Medicine Buddha) and one hall for the 3 key bodhisattvas; besides the protectors, etc.<br />19 Schools/Sects of the tradition One surviving major school.<br />(this follows years of attrition, reducing the number from as high as 18) 8 major (Chinese) schools based on the partial doctrines (sutras, sastras or vinaya) of the teachings. The four schools inclined towards practices like Pure Land/Amitabha, Ch'an, Vajrayana and Vinaya (not for lay people) are more popular than the philosophy based schools like Tien Tai, Avatamsaka, Yogacara and Madhyamika.<br />20 Non-Buddhist influences Mainly pre-Buddhism Indian/Brahmin influences. Many terms like karma, sangha, etc were prevailing terms during Sakyamuni Buddha's life time. References were made from the Vedas and Upanishads. In the course of integration and adoption by the people in other civilizations, there were heavy mutual influences. In China, both Confucianism and Taoism exerted some influence on Buddhism which in turn had an impact on the indigenous beliefs. This scenario was repeated in Japan and Tibet.<br />21 Buddha nature <br />Absent from the teachings of Theravada tradition. <br />Heavily stressed, particularly by schools inclined practices.<br />22 Absolute Truth The Doctrine of the Buddha and the Concept of Nibbana The Concept of emptiness of emptiness, the concept of Bodhicitta and Nibbana<br /><br />Conclusion<br />The main goal of Theravada Buddhism is personal liberation from suffering and that of Mahayana Buddhism is liberation of all living beings from suffering. There is considerable variation in ritual, texts, culture, etc. between the two traditions, but also within each tradition. However, the primary differences are mainly cultural and not spiritual.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Bibliography<br /><br />1. Keown, D. 2000. Theravāda and Mahayana Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. London: OUP, Oxford Press: 56-69.<br />2. W. Rahula. 1996. Theravāda - Mahayana Buddhism. Gems of Buddhist Wisdom. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society. <br />3. Gombrich, Richard F. 1988. Theravāda Buddhism: a social history from ancient Benares to modern Colombo. Library of religious beliefs and practices. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. <br />4. Williams, Paul. 1989. Mahāyāna Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations. The Library of religious beliefs and practices. London: Routledge.<br />5. Nāgārjuna, Garfield, J.L. 1995. The fundamental wisdom of the middle way: Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā. New York: Oxford University Press. <br />6. Brown, Brian Edward. 1991. The Buddha nature: a study of the Tathāgatagarbha and ālayavijñāna. Buddhist traditions, 11. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. <br />7. Chihmann, U. The Four Buddhist Books in Mahayana. Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-8394654043917560922009-10-21T22:33:00.001-07:002009-10-21T22:33:58.029-07:00Relativity In The Light Of Double TruthRelativity In The Light Of Double Truth<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br /><br />The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br /><br /><br /><br />Corresponding address:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,<br />SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,<br /> KOLKATA – 700 091<br />WEST BENGAL, INDIA<br />Tel: +91-33-23215586<br />Mobile: +919434485543<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br /> <br />Relativity In The Light Of Double Truth<br /><br />Abstract<br /><br />The theory of the two truths is an innovation on the part of the Theravada Abhidhamma. Here, we find the concept of the two levels of reality, the one which is amenable to analysis and the other which defies further analysis. There are some striking similarities present between Buddhist concept of Double Truth and modern scientific views related to the notion of time and space. <br /><br />The concept of Time is psychological and it is also considered to be an imputed entity. This is because it is identified on the basis of something that is other than itself. The whole process of cosmo-genesis according to Buddhism is catalyzed by the actions of living beings or Kamma. The Theravāda concept of space is found only in Milindapañha where the only two things which are considered to be independent of kamma or of causes or of season are namely Nibbāna and space. But it carefully avoids the use of the term “unconditioned” (asańkhata) and relates space as neither conditioned nor unconditioned. However, In the Sarvāstivāda Abhidhamma, space is elevated to the level of an unconditioned dhamma.<br /><br />Key Words: Sammuti, Paññatti , Conventional, Paramattha, Absolute, Double Truth, Relativity, Abhidhamma, Einstein, Time, Space, Emptiness, Psychological, Nibbāna, Tathata <br /> <br />Relativity In The Light Of Double Truth<br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />In Buddhist doctrines, the Sutta passages mention the theory of double truth which is a logical extension of the dhamma theory. The theory of the two truths is an innovation on the part of the Theravada Abhidhamma. Here, we find the concept of the two levels of reality, the one which is amenable to analysis and the other which defies further analysis. The first level is called sammuti because it represents conventional or relative truth or consensual reality. The second is called paramattha because it represents the absolute truth or ultimate reality.1,2<br /><br />There are some controversies related to the degree of reality that should be attributed to the sum total of the dhammas that make up the ‘person’. According to the Puggalavādins the sum total should be assigned the same degree of reality that is assigned to the constituents. However, the Theravādins consider that the sum total is not real in an ultimate sense because of its analyzability. The ultimate constituents into which, the sum total is analyzable are ultimately real because they are not amenable to further analysis.2,3<br /><br />An interesting feature in the Theravāda version of the theory is the use of the term sammuti for relative truth. For in all other schools of Buddhist thought the term used is saṃvrti. The difference is not simply that between Pali and Sanskrit, for the two terms differ both in etymology and meaning. Since sammuti refers to convention or general agreement, sammuti-sacca means truth based on convention or general agreement. On the other hand, the idea behind saṃvrti-satya is that which covers up the true nature of things and makes them appear otherwise. As saṃvrti means that which covers, hides, or conceals the true nature of reality, it is clearly implied that paramārtha is that which reveals the true nature of reality. Thus, the very use of the term saṃvrti to express one of the truths shows that that particular truth is less truthful and therefore inferior to what is called paramārtha-satya, the absolute truth. That is why, in all other schools of Buddhist thought belonging to the ‘Hīnayāna’ and ‘Mahāyāna’ traditions, the paramārtha satya is considered superior to saṃvrti satya.4,5<br /><br />In the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma the difference between saṃvrti (relative) and paramārtha (absolute) is explained in a different manner. It is sought to be based on the principle of physical reducibility and mental analyzability. When there are the five aggregates as objects of clinging, there comes to be the mere term of common usage “a being”, “a person”, yet when each component is examined, there is no being as a basis for the assumption of “I am” or “I”. Here, the idea of a human being disappears when it is reduced to pieces. If the notion of a thing disappears when it is analyzed by mind, then it is to be regarded as existing relatively. If the idea of a thing does not persist any more when it is analyzed, then it exists in a conventional sense (saṃvrtisat).On the other hand, when a given thing is analyzed by mind, if the idea of it continues to persist, then that particular thing is said to exist in an ultimate sense (paramārtha-sat). For example, materiality (rūpana) or impenetrability (pratighāta) continues to persist when what is material or impenetrable is reduced to atoms or analyzed by mind into their constituents. The same is true when we consider mental phenomena such as feeling (vedanā), ideation (sajña), etc. According to Bhadanta Śrilāta, one of the celebrities of the Sautrāntika School of Buddhism, if the thing in question loses its original name when it is analyzed, then it is saṃvrti and if it does not, then it is paramārtha. Here, too, analyzability is taken as the sole criterion in distinguishing the two kinds of truth.3,4,5<br /><br /><br />Teachings of the Buddha in the light of Double Truth<br />The Buddha preached his doctrine by adopting either the sammuti-kathā or the paramattha-kathā according to the suitability of the occasion. He had used the dialect that a person readily understands. There was no implication that one dialect was superior or inferior to another. After taking into consideration the ability of each individual to understand the Four Noble Truths, the Buddha had presented his teaching, either by way of sammuti, or by way of paramattha, or by way of both. These are just two different ways of presenting the same set of doctrines. Although the sammuti-sacca is quite different from the paramattha-sacca, but both are expressed through paññatti. The commentarial literatures stated that ‘the ultimately real is expressed (communicated) without going beyond paññatti’ (Paññattim anatikkamma paramattho pakāsito) and also the Madhyamaka stating that ‘the absolute is not taught without resorting to the conventional’ (Vyavahāram anāsrtya paramārtho na deśyate). Both statements refer to the invariable association between the two truths and the symbolic medium of language.3,4,5<br /><br />In the Sutta Piṭaka there is more use of conventional terms in ordinary parlance, whereas in the Abhidhamma Piṭaka more use is made of specific, technical terms which directly refer to the ultimate categories of empirical existence. The difference is only pertaining to method and not the content. Thus, what is intended to show by the description of the Sutta Piṭaka and the Abhidhamma Piṭaka as sammuti-desanā and paramattha-desanā respectively is that they represent two different ways of presenting the same doctrine. So, we should remember that whatever method the Buddha had adopted, the purpose was the same. He wanted to show the way to immortality through the analysis of mental and physical phenomena. Hence, one is advised not to adhere dogmatically to the mere superficial meanings of words (Na vacanabhedamattam ālambitabbaṃ), while understanding the teaching of the Buddha.3,5<br /><br /><br /> Application of the Concept of Double Truth in Modern Science<br />Though Buddhism did not have any rigorous methodology for studying the physical world, but the Buddhist scholars and contemplatives had developed views on matters related to the universe and its contents. This was based on pure logical and rational thinking and no experimental model was applied to prove or disprove any of these observations. These phenomena were discussed in detail in the early Buddhism, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, the Visuddhimagga, the Pali commentaries, Mahāvibhāṣā-śāstra, the Kālacackra Tantra and in the literature on Buddhist epistemology.1,3,6 Although the study of physical world was not the central focus of the traditional areas of learning and specialization in Buddhism, but there are some striking similarities present between Buddhist concept of Double Truth and modern scientific views related to the notion of time and space.<br /><br /><br />Einstein’s Theories on Relativity <br />Albert Einstein is generally regarded as the greatest theoretical physicist of all times. His contributions to atomic physics and study of the photoelectric effect had earned him the Noble Prize. His theory of relativity with its profound modifications of the notions of space, time and gravitation had fundamentally changed and deepened our understanding of the physical and philosophical conception of the universe. The historians call the year 1905 as the “annus mirabilis” or “miracle year”, because in that year the renowned scientist Albert Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers addressing fundamental problems about the nature of energy, matter, motion, time and space. He was awarded the noble prize in the year 1921 for his outstanding contributions to the Theoretical Physics and especially for his discovery of the “Law of the Photoelectric Effect”.7,8 Some of his theories which could be viewed in the light of Buddhist concept of Double Truth are as follows:8,9<br /><br />• In June 1905, Einstein proposed his concept of special relativity. Einstein's March paper treated light as particles, but special relativity estimated light as a continuous field of waves. So, Einstein observed light both as wave and particle. <br /><br />• Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics: E=mc2. (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light in vacuum squared). This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means. This led to the theory of the conservation of energy, in the form of the first law of thermodynamics, which stated that the total amount of energy in any isolated system always remains constant. Although it can only be changed from one form to another, e.g. friction turns kinetic energy into thermal energy; this energy cannot be created or destroyed. If we calculate how much energy is being produced within the volume by stars and galaxies and also calculate how much energy is leaving the region, then the difference between the two parts should equal zero. Therefore, hypothetically, the energy produced by the universe is zero. So, another expression of this assumption is that “the total amount of energy in the universe is always constant. It is only that one form transforms into the other”.<br /><br />• During 1915, Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity and showed that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time. What we feel as the 'force' of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved, four-dimensional space-time. It was a radical vision where space was no longer considered to be the box to enclose the universe. Instead, space and time along with matter and energy are all locked together in the most intimate embrace. <br /><br /><br />The Concept of Double Truth and Relativity<br />The Buddhist view was always aware of the unity and mutual interaction of all events. This concept of “seeing things as they are themselves” was also called “Tathata” or “suchness”. The Theravāda version of the two truths are considered as conventional truth (sammuti-sacca) and absolute or ultimate truth (paramattha-sacca). The theory of double truth as developed by the Abhidhamma has a close connection with the early Buddhist analysis of empirical existence into aggregates (khandha), sense bases (ayatana), and elements (dhātu) of cognition. Although what is analysed is called sammuti, unlike in the Abhidhamma, that into which it is analysed is not called paramattha. What is more, in the early Buddhist scriptures the term paramattha is used only as a descriptive term of Nibbāna, to show that, from an ethico-psychological perspectivbe, Nibbana is the ‘highest ideal’(sumnum bonum). Whereas in the Abhidhamma the term paramattha is used in an ontological sense to mean ‘what exists in a real and ultimate sense’. In this ontological sense the term paramattha denotes not only Nibbāna as the Unconditioned Element, but also all mental and material elements into which the conditioned existence is analyzed.2,3 Einstein had also expressed that “there is no place in this kind of physics both for the field and matter, for the field is the only reality.”7,8<br /><br />In the Madhyamaka system, nītārtha (nītattha) and neyyārtha (neyyattha) are explained as a parallel to its version of the two kinds of truth (saṃvrti and paramārtha). Nagarjuna’s analysis of “Sunyata” was based on the concept of rejection of all sorts of impositions. It revealed the fact that anything internal or external that appears to us as existing is in fact unreal and virtual. Thus, it emphasized the dynamicity and relativity of our own individual perceptions. The Mahayanists had claimed that nothing exists in our universe of experience in real form. What we perceive through our senses is all virtual and subjected to constant change from moment to moment.4,5,6 This implies that there is no static and permanent entity and everything is subjected to transformation. Since, every phenomenon is relative to each other and follows the rule of Dependent Origination, it is considered to be dynamic. <br /><br /><br />Time: A Psychological Concept <br />Since ages, “time” had been a topic extensive analysis in both the Buddhist and scientific traditions. Long before Galileo or Newton, many of the Ancient philosophers speculated on the nature of time. One view that is relevant to the history of non-mathematical concept of time is Augustine’s suggestion that the only time is lived-time. This theory reflects the existence of “psychological time;” the sense of time that we all normally experience. It is psychological, rather than the mathematical or scientific concept of time, which was most recently explored by the German phenomenologist Martin Heidegger. This “psychological time” has been discussed by Buddhism as well.7,8<br /><br />Galileo was the first modern scientist to work with the concept of time. In his studies, he used a simple water clock to measure relative passages of time while rolling balls down inclined planes. Despite these pioneering efforts, he could not provide any systematic or functional definition of time. A clear definition of time did not come until Newton, who had universalized time and employed the concept of time in mathematical frameworks.7,8<br /><br />Beyond Newton, time eventually became important in relation to the thermodynamics and Einstein’s theory of relativity. Observing the irreversibility or asymmetry between the past and future, it has been argued that time is uni-directional and is also associated with the experience of “psychological time”. The concept of the uni-directional nature of time is not without controversy. Einstein himself had felt the uni-directionality of time and considered the concept of time to be an illusion.9,10<br /><br />According to Newton, time was universal and unchanging and provides a kind of backdrop with space where all events took place. This concept was also based on the view that time was completely unrelated to space and uni-directional. As compared to this existing notion, Einstein’s contribution to the understanding of time was revolutionary. In Einstein’s theory of relativity, time (with space) becomes relative and contingent both on speed and gravity. The faster one travels or the closer one is to an object with a very strong gravitational pull, time elapses more slowly. This theory was supported by Langevin who proposed the concept of “twin paradox” and predicted that one twin traveling through space at great speeds will age much more slowly than her twin who is living on earth. A similar concept has been described in our psychological experience of time. Sometimes, we perceive as time to fly off very fast while in other situations, we perceive time to move very slowly.7,11<br /><br />The Buddhist concept of time is equally diverse. Like “psychological time” described in Western contexts, Buddhists recognize that time can be experienced as moving faster or slower in certain situations. Buddhist contemplatives had often claimed to be able to alter their experience of time. What others might experience as only an instant, could be experienced by a person meditating as a much longer period of time. From the Buddhist perspective, when one actually analyzes time; it is found to not really exist. So, according to Buddhism, time is a “conventional truth” (paññatti) and a verbal or conceptual designation which is imputed onto experiences of a past, present, and future. It is called “conventional” because it is only established nominally on the basis of words and thoughts. If we actually try to point to an instant of time, the moment that we try to pinpoint has already passed and a future moment has now become the “present.” In this way, we cannot technically speak of any fixed, locatable present as it always vanishes upon close examination. Because of its conventional or dependent nature, time is an excellent example of the Buddhist concept of interdependence. The present only exists in dependence upon the concepts of past and future and none of these make sense without the others.3,10,11,12<br /><br />Time is also considered an imputed entity in a yet more scholastic and technical context. This is because it is identified on the basis of something that is other than itself. A substantial entity, by contrast, is something that can be pointed to and identified directly. For example, when we speak of time, we point to a clock (a substantial entity) and as we watch the second hand go by, we perceive that we are watching the “time” to pass. We have not pointed to the “time” in reality, but rather perceived it through designations on things that are not time, like the clock. Though the things which serve as the basis for designations of time can be physical or mental, but time itself is neither physical nor mental. Instead, time fits in a third class of phenomenon technically referred to as “non-associated composite phenomena.” Here, “Non-associated” means that it is neither physical nor mental and “composite” means that time is dependent on other factors and is impermanent.8,10,11<br /><br />Beyond these technical understandings of time, the Buddhists in Mahayana tradition believe in the existence of “three forms of time” consisting of past, present, and future. But the Theravāda tradition only recognizes the present moment as a marker of time. From a contemplative perspective, a major practice in Buddhism, is abiding in the “present moment.” In other contexts, time is discussed as an accessible way to introduce the Buddhist concept of dependent-origination. Apart from this concept of time, these two Buddhist schools had also identified the shortest possible divisions of time that is required to perform an act and the shortest division of time in general. An example of the shortest possible divisions of time is the time it takes to blink our eye, which is called a moment. The shortest division of time is considered to be 1/60th (or even 1/365th, depending on the source) the duration of a finger snap, a number which one Buddhist scholar has calculated roughly as one millisecond.11,13<br /><br />Considering these facts, we observe that the Buddhist concept of “psychological time” is similar to Einstein’s perception that time is illusory. Since, Buddhism originated 2500 years ago and Einstein had a good understanding of the doctrines of Buddhism, there is a high possibility that he was influenced by this Buddhist concept of time as a “conventional truth” and used it to explain his theory of relativity which is accepted by modern science.<br />Space: Ambiguity on its Status of Conditioned or Unconditioned<br />Another major area of discussion for Buddhists, physicists, and cosmologists is the nature of empty space and cosmogony. The concept of Time and Space in relation to Buddhism are the two varieties of paññatti. They are two conceptual constructs without any corresponding objective reality. In Buddhism, the only two things which are considered to be not born of kamma (akammaja) or of causes (ahetuja) or of season (anutuja) are namely Nibbāna and Space. In Milindapañha, the only two things which are considered to be independent of kamma or of causes or of season are namely Nibbāna and space. But it carefully avoids the use of the term “unconditioned” (asańkhata) and relates space as neither conditioned nor unconditioned. The Theravāda concept of space is found only in Milindapañha where the space is defined as infinite (ananta), boundless (appamāna) and immeasurable (appameyya). It does not cling to anything (alagga), is not attached to anything (asatta), rests on nothing (appatițțha) and is not obstructed anything (apalibuddha). The Theravādins include the space element concept in the objective field of mental objects (dhammāyatana) which means that it is not visible but can be cognized only as an object of mind-consciousness.3,10,11,12,13<br /><br />In the Sarvāstivāda Abhidhamma, the counterpart of space element is referred to as ākāśa-dhātu. The space element is either light (āloka) or darkness (tamas) and therefore it is included in the objective sense-field of the visible (rupāyatana). Besides this, the Sarvāstivādins recognize another kind of space which is called ākāśa and not ākāśa dhātu. It is defined not as space bound by matter, but as that which provides room for the movement of matter (yatra rūpasya gati). It is omni-present (sarvagata), eternal (nitya) and its nature is non-obstruction (anāvaraṇa-svabhāva). It does not obstruct matter, which freely exists therein. It is also not obstructed by matter, for it cannot be dislodged by matter. However, space is not the mere absence of obstruction of matter, but something passively real. Hence, in the Sarvāstivāda Abhidhamma, space is elevated to the level of an unconditioned dhamma. Thus, what the Sarvāstivādins call unconditioned space is the space considered absolutely real and as serving as a receptacle for the existence and movement of material phenomena.4,10,12<br /><br />In the Madhyamaka system Nagarjuna had explained the Buddhist Doctrine of Dependent Origination in the light of “Sunyata” which means “void or emptiness”. The space in universe is also intimately connected to this Buddhist concept of śūnyatā or emptiness. Just as nothing can exist without space, so too can nothing exist without emptiness. Because all phenomena are empty of a static, independent and permanent existence, they can come into existence, change their forms and pass on. Emptiness is alternatively understood through the concept of dependent-origination. It is because things arise by depending on other things that exist. The notion of a permanent and independent phenomenon therefore, can never exist without interacting with anything else and itself undergoing some changes in the process. We should realize the “absolute truth” behind the concept of “emptiness” as absence of self-entity and attachment. We should also understand the fact that interdependence is the nature of reality in order to eliminate ignorance and free our minds from the ocean of conditioned, karmic-driven existence.4,8,10,11<br /><br />In physics, there are highly developed mathematical theories which suggest the empty space of a vacuum actually contains an infinite amount of energy. It is speculated that this energy has a role in the evolution in the universe. While this is still an area of controversy and mystery within theoretical physics, it makes for a rough parallel to the Buddhist concept of empty-particles and the universe arising out of space. In Buddhist literature, empty space is an important concept in understanding the origins of the universe. It is traditionally presumed that at the beginning of a cosmic cycle, the various elements arise from empty space catalyzed by the karmic winds of sentient beings. From space comes wind or kinetic energy. From wind comes fire or thermal energy. From fire comes water or fluidity. Finally, from water comes earth or solidity.10,11,12 According to Hinduism, these five elements (space, wind, fire, water, and earth) make up the basis for matter in the universe. But Buddhism does not accept space as a primary element for matter and regard it as paññatti, which is based on conceptual constructs without any corresponding objective reality.<br /><br />The whole process of cosmo-genesis according to Buddhism is catalyzed by the actions of living beings or Kamma. <br />When an action or Kamma is performed by an individual based on lust, anger, hatred and jealousy, then that action creates an imprint on one’s consciousness. This karmic imprint acts as a seed that lies dormant within consciousness until someday maturing into a fully ripened fruit or experience. When conditions are right, this imprint would manifest itself and stir into creation of some new universe of experience. Thus, in Buddhism, the universe is considered to be the space of our various kinds of Kammic experiences. In the context of cosmogony, Kamma is what catalyzes the formation of a new universe. From the Buddhist perspective, there are said to be multiple world systems which constantly go through a process of formation and dissipation across vast expanses of space and time without having any particular point of beginning. Einstein also accepted this concept and emphasized on the conduction of volitions activities by human beings.7,8,10,11<br /><br /><br /> <br />Conclusion<br />The expression ‘paramattha’ (absolute/ultimate) means that which is ultimate, that which is not further resolvable. The reference is to the dhammas, the ultimate data of existence. Accordingly, sammuti is conceptual (kappanā-siddha) and paramattha is objectively real (bhāva-siddha). Although paramattha can be designated and conceptualized by mind, it exists without being designated and conceptualized. In other words, it is the knowledge which is ultimate. Knowledge is present everywhere all the time irrespective of whether we perceive it or not. Thus, paramattha-sacca really means ‘the truth expressed by using the technical terms expressive of the ultimate elements of existence. Similarly, sammuti-sacca or conventional truth means the truth expressed by using conventional terms in common parlance’. It is to be noted that no preferential value-judgment should be used to distinguish between sammuti-sacca and paramattha-sacca while deciphering the doctrine of the Buddha.2,3,5<br /><br />As mentioned in the Aṇguttaranikāya, the Theravada tradition also considers these as the two ways of presenting the same dhamma. Although the Four Noble Truths represent four different facts, no preferential value judgment is introduced in respect of them. One particular truth is not held out as superior or inferior to another. That is why they are all introduced as Noble Truths (Ariya-saccāni). All are equally noble (ariya), and all are equally true (sacca). None of them impose any preferential value judgment in respect of each of the other. This concept of non-value judgment is the most important common feature between nītattha and neyyattha, and the Four Noble Truths. 1,2,3,5<br /><br />During the process of evolution of modern science, the basic elementary philosophical and logical concepts were already present in our religious practices. Though the modern scientists discard the concept of a “Creator God”, but they recognize the fact that there are a number of philosophical concepts of modern science embedded in Buddhism, which needs careful exploration. The interpretation of modern scientific theories, related to the universe and cosmology, in the light of Abhidhamma perspective of Buddhism is a sincere effort in this direction. <br /> <br />References <br /><br />1. Karunadasa, Y. 2009. The Literature of the Theravāda Abhidhamma as a guide to the history of the Abhidhamma Systematization. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies, the University of Hong Kong. <br />2. Karunadasa, Y. 1996. The Dhamma Theory: Philosophical Cornerstone of the Abhidhamma. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. <br />3. Karunadasa, Y. 2008.Theravada Version of the Two Truths. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies, the University of Hong Kong.<br />4. Dhammajoti, K.L. 2003. Sarvāstivāda Abhidhamma. Colombo, Sri Lanka: The Centre for Buddhist Studies.<br />5. Bodhi, B., ed. 1993. A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma (the annotated translation of Abhidhammatthasangaha of Acariya Anuruddha). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.<br />6. Lopez, Donald S. 2005. Critical terms for the study of Buddhism. Buddhism and modernity. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. <br />7. Jammer, Max. 1999. Einstein and religion: physics and theology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <br />8. Bharucha, Filita P. 1992. Buddhist theory of causation and Einstein's theory of relativity. Delhi, India: Sri Satguru Publications. <br />9. Einstein, A., 1931. The world as I see it. Forum and Century: Living Philosophies 84: 193-4.<br />10. Wallace,B.A., ed., 2003. Buddhism & science: breaking new ground. New York: Columbia University Press.<br />11. Wallace, B.A.1996. Choosing Reality: A Buddhist View of Physics and the Mind. Ithaca, N.Y.: Snow Lion Publications: 18-27.<br />12. Karunadasa, Y. 2009. Time and Space. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies. The University of Hong Kong.<br />13. Lopez, D.S. 2008. Buddhism & science: A guide for the perplexed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7189697644726154995.post-70714233243488063462009-10-21T22:32:00.000-07:002009-10-21T22:33:11.629-07:00Quantum And The AbhidhammaQuantum And The Abhidhamma<br /><br /><br />ANKUR BARUA<br /><br /><br />The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong<br /><br /><br />Corresponding address:<br />Dr. ANKUR BARUA<br />BLOCK – EE, No. – 80, Flat No. – 2A,<br />SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,<br /> KOLKATA – 700 091<br />WEST BENGAL, INDIA<br />Tel: +91-33-23215586<br />Mobile: +919434485543<br />Email: ankurbarua26@yahoo.com<br /> <br />Quantum And The Abhidhamma<br /><br />Abstract<br /><br />In the Theravāda Abhidhamma tradition, an atom is considered to be the smallest unit of matter which is an aggregate of a number of unitary material elements called as a “cluster of material elements” or “rūpa- kalāpa”, where every cluster is delimited by an intervening space, so that they do not touch each other. However, according to the Sarvāstivāda tradition, an atom is considered to be the smallest unit of a single unitary material element and it is so minute that it actually lacks spatial dimension. This Buddhist concept of matter is very close to Einstein’s concept of quantum as smallest unit of energy in the universe and also the modern theory of quarks which are hypothesized as mere geometrical points in space that make up the protons and neutrons of an atom. Though the study of the physical world was not the central focus of the traditional areas of learning and specialization in Buddhism, but the Buddhist scholars and contemplatives had developed views on matters related to the universe and its contents. These views were developed on pure logical and rational thinking and no rigorous methodology was applied for experimenting with the physical world. <br /><br />Key Words: Matter, Atom, Cluster, Geometrical points<br /><br /> <br />Quantum And The Abhidhamma<br /><br /><br />Introduction<br />Modern physics bears the impact of Albert Einstein more than that of any other physicist. His theory of relativity with its profound modifications of the notions of space, time and gravitation had fundamentally changed and deepened our understanding of the physical and philosophical conception of the universe.1 Though the study of the physical world was not the central focus of the traditional areas of learning and specialization in Buddhism, but there are some striking similarities present between Buddhist and modern scientific views related to the concepts of time and space. The Buddhist scholars and contemplatives had developed views on matters related to the universe and its contents, which was based on pure logical and rational thinking and no rigorous methodology was applied for studying the physical world.2,3 These phenomena were discussed in detail in the early Buddhism, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, the Visuddhimagga, the Pali commentaries, Mahāvibhāṣā-śāstra, the Kālacackra Tantra and in the literature on Buddhist epistemology.4,5<br /><br /><br />Einstein’s Theories on Quantum Physics and Relativity1,6,7<br />Albert Einstein had published some remarkable scientific papers addressing fundamental problems about the nature of energy, matter, motion, time and space. Some of his theories which could be viewed in light of the Abhidhamma concept of matter are as follows:<br /><br />• In March 1905, Einstein created the quantum theory of light. This theory dealt with the idea that light exists as tiny packets, or particles, which he called photons. Einstein proposed that we live in a quantum universe, one built out of tiny, discrete chunks of energy and matter. <br />• During April and May 1905, Einstein published two new research papers. In one he invented a new method of counting and determining the size of the atoms or molecules in a given space and in the other he explains the phenomenon of Brownian motion. The net result was a proof that atoms actually exist. This brought an end to a millennia-old debate on the fundamental nature of the chemical elements.<br /><br /><br />Quantum and the Concept of Matter in Abhidhamma<br />The Abhidhamma analysis of matter assumes significance within framework of the Dhamma Theory. There are in all 28 rupa-dhammas or material elements which imply that 28 items into which material existence can be analyzed. These 28 material elements represent not only the matter that enters into the composition of living beings (organic matter), but also the matter that exists in the external world (inorganic matter). However, matter is defined as that which has the characteristic of “ruppana” which means the susceptibility to being modified or receptivity to change due to the impact of the contrary forces. This is also defined as “visaduppatti” or the “genesis of dissimilarity” or change. What is meant by change is the disappearance of one material element and the appearance of another material element in its place. So, the concept of change is not mere alteration between two stages of a single material element.7,8,9<br /><br />The four primary elements of matter recognized in Buddhism are: (a) Earth element – represents solidity and extension, (b) Water element – represents viscidity and liquidity, (c) Fire element – represents the temperature of cold and heat and (d) Air element – represents distension, fluctuation and mobility. These four primary elements are necessarily co-nascent and inseparable. These elements arise together, exist together and cease together and they cannot be separated from one another. Though there is no quantitative difference among these elements that enter into composition of material things, but the only difference is of intensity.7,9,10<br /><br />As defined in Theravāda Abhidhamma, the earth-element (pathavi-dhātu) has the characteristics of solidity and extension, which means the three dimensional spatial occupation. Our notion of a solid body is obtained when matter occupies the three dimensions of space. The earth-element which represents solidity and spatial extension is said to be present in every instance of matter. So, every instance of matter is characterized by solidity (whatever be the degree) and extension (whatever be the extent). This shows that the Theravāda Abhidhamma too, recognizes the Sarvāstivāda definition of matter in the concept of “pratighata” which is the resistance or impenetrability.7,9,10<br /><br />The Visuddhimagga states that in this body the earth-element (pathavi-dhātu) taken as reduced to fine dust and pounded to the size of atoms (paramāṇu) might amount to an average dona-measure full, and that is held together by the water-element (āpo-dhātu) measuring half as much. According to the Sarvāstivāda tradition, an atom is considered to be the smallest unit of a single unitary material element and it is so minute that it actually lacks spatial dimension. This concept is very close to Einstein’s concept of quantum as smallest unit of energy in the universe1 and also the modern theory of “quarks” which are hypothesized as mere geometrical points in space that make up the protons and neutrons of an atom.7,9<br /><br />When any component of the body is reduced to the size of atoms, each atom in turn should consist of the same four inseparable primary elements. Thus, the concept of atoms (paramāṇu) logically points to be an aggregate of primary elements. This is identical with kalāpa, but in technical sense it means the smallest cluster of material elements. So, according to the Theravāda Abhidhamma tradition, an atom is an aggregate of a number of unitary material elements and is described not only as an atom (paramāṇu), but also as a “cluster of material elements” called “rūpa- kalāpa”. Here, every “rūpa- kalāpa” is delimited by an intervening space, so that they do not touch each other. However, the attractive force of the air-element keeps the atoms together from escaping. From the point of view of modern science, this indicates the possibility of existence of some kind of an electro-magnetic force present between these elements which hold them in clusters without touching each other.7,9,10<br /><br />Though Einstein had earlier experimentally demonstrated the existence of atoms as smallest particles of matter, but later it was proved that atoms could be further divisible into its charged components of protons, electrons and neutrons which are separated from each other due to their respective electrical charges. Thus, the concept of atom perceived as “smallest cluster of material elements” in Theravāda Abhidhamma, also points to the concept of further divisibility of atoms.1 The modern theory of “quarks” which are hypothesized as mere geometrical points in space that make up the protons and neutrons of an atom also exist as clusters to give definite shape to these structures.7,9<br /><br /><br />Quantum Theory and the Buddhist Concept of Dynamic Flux<br />Abhidhamma considered events as space-time representations of a continuous dynamic flux. Nothing is considered to be static and permanent, but everything is in a state of constant change in our universe of experience. However, there is no single enduring changing entity, but there exist a series of momentary changes. The Buddha was often regarded as “Tathagata” which means “one who comes and goes thus”. The Buddha gave this famous doctrine of momentariness (ksanikavada) in terms of “here and now”.2,3 The Quantum field theory also considers physical phenomena as transient manifestations of an underlying fundamental unity. Following this concept of dynamic flux, Einstein had also demonstrated the spontaneous and random movements of atoms, called Brownian motion. The idea which could be drawn out from his observations is that there is nothing in a constant, static state in this universe. All the particles in this universe are in dynamic motion with relation to each other and their tendency to execute the random movements are restricted due to the strong gravitational and electromagnetic forces of each other.1,11 The doctrine of the Buddha related to the Dependent Origination also supports this concept by considering everything in this universe that we are able to perceive though our sense organs are impermanent and are subjected to constant change from moment to moment. This is the Buddhist counterpart of the phenomenon of dynamic flux.<br /> <br />Abhidhamma Perspective on Einstein’s Notion of Escape Velocity and Black Holes<br />Einstein proved the theory of escape velocity which is use in all astronomical studies of modern times. When any space shuttle is launched from the earth’s surface, it must have an initial speed of at least 11 km/s (25,000 miles/hr). If the shuttle's launch speed exceeds this speed, it can escape Earth's gravitational field and make it into space. If the launch speed is less than this escape velocity, it will fall back to Earth. The value of the escape velocity from a planet or star depends on its mass and radius. The escape velocity is directly proportional to mass but inversely proportional to the radius and volume of a substance. If a star is compressed to a smaller size without changing its mass, its escape velocity will increase. This is due to the fact that a greater speed is needed to escape the greater gravitational force on its surface as it is more densely compressed.1,6,11<br /><br />In the Theravāda Abhidhamma tradition, an atom is considered to be an aggregate of a number of unitary material elements called as a “cluster of material elements” or “rūpa- kalāpa”. Here, every “rūpa- kalāpa” is delimited by an intervening space, so that they do not touch each other. However, the attractive force of air-element keeps the atoms together from escaping. From the point of view of modern science, this indicates the possibility of existence of some kind of an electro-magnetic force present between these elements which hold them in clusters without touching each other.3,7,9,10 This Abhidhamma perception of non-collapsing clusters of material elements with the attractive force of air-element holding them in position, could define Einstein’s concept of escape velocity of a non-collapsing celestial mass.<br /><br />According to Einstein's special theory of relativity, the speed of light is the ultimate speed limit in the universe. Nothing can travel faster than light. Hence, when a star collapses to the point that its escape velocity exceeds the speed of light, nothing can escape, not even light. A black hole is simply a star that has collapsed so much that its escape velocity is greater than the speed of light. Traveling into a black hole is thus, the ultimate one way trip. There is no traveling back from it. This happens when the most massive stars, at the end of their lives, explode as supernovae. If the central core of the star left after the explosion is at least about 2 to 3 times as massive as the Sun, there is no force known to modern science that can resist the inward tug of gravity. It will continue to compress until it collapses into a black hole. Because no known force can stop the collapse, all the matter in what was once the star is compressed into a geometric point, it has a radius of zero. This point is called the singularity. The singularity has the same mass as the core of the star that collapsed into the black hole, compressed into a radius and volume of zero. Hence it has an infinite density.1,11<br /><br />The distance from the singularity to where the escape velocity equals the speed of light is called the Schwarzschild radius or event horizon. The Schwarzschild radius of a black hole, ten times as massive as the Sun, is 30 kilometers. Schwarzschild predicted this effect from Einstein's general theory of relativity. Although nothing can escape from inside the event horizon, black holes don't automatically slurp up everything nearby. It is possible to orbit a black hole without falling in.1,6<br /><br />In the Sarvāstivāda Abhidhamma tradition, an atom is considered to be the smallest unit of a single unitary material element and it is so minute that it actually lacks spatial dimension. So, the Sarvāstivādins believe that an atom is devoid of parts and exempt from resistance or impenetrability. Keeping this concept in background, if we presume that atoms touch each other totally and without any intervening space in between, then they would all collapse into one and all would occupy the same locus.7,9,10 This Abhidhamma concept of complete collapse of elementary particles of matter relates to the theory of origination of dimensionless dark holes with enormous celestial mass.<br /><br />The concept of “emptiness” in Madhyamika tradition by Nagarjuna also suggests that except the “Nibbana” and “space”, whatever we perceive through our sense organs is virtual.3,4,12 Though the dark holes have enormous celestial mass and gravitational force of attraction, but they lack dimension and are mere points in the universe. So, they could be regarded as dimensionless virtual mass. In spite of having real existence, they remain invisible to the human eye as they absorb all the light rays that fall on them and reflect none. We see only about 10% of the total mass of the clusters in the form of the individual galaxies in the clusters. The remaining 90% is dark matter. Since, the dark matter has immense mass and gravitational pull to trap all the light rays that fall on them and never reflect anything; they remain invisible to the human eye. So, we might not be able to locate 90% of matter in the universe which are in the form of dark matter.1<br /><br /><br />Einstein’s Views on Energy for Expanding Universe <br />Einstein thought earlier that the space was not expanding, and he used in his calculations a factor named, “Cosmological Constant”, to cancel the expansion effect. But later he changed his mind and supported the theory that expansion of the universe is really happening. He had proved this theory by demonstrating the shift of light towards the red spectrum to confirm this expansion of the universe. The universe is considered to have a constant amount of energy since the beginning and as mass is a concentrated form of energy, what really happens is a change of energy from one type to another.1,11 To explain the expansion of the universe, there is the theory of spontaneous generation of matter, which means, mass appears from energy to fill the space so as to contradict the "Big Bang" theory. Scientists do not really know why space is expanding. However, measurements and observations are best explained by considering the universe to be expanding. Though there are a variety of possible explanations put forward by the modern scientists, but we do not know for certain if any of these are correct.1,3,12<br /><br />In Theravāda Abhidhamma, an atom is considered to be an aggregate of a number of unitary material elements and is described as a “cluster of material elements” called “rūpa- kalāpa”. Every “rūpa- kalāpa” is delimited by an intervening space, so that they do not touch each other. The attractive force of the air-element keeps the atoms together. But there is no mention of how close these material elements are to each other and what is the dimension of their intervening space.7,9,10 However, the very fact that they are held in clusters, with each element separated from each other; from the point of view of modern science, this indicates the possibility of existence of some kind of an electro-magnetic force present between these elements. If this phenomenon is true then the strength of this force could explain the possible reasons for expansion or collapse of the universe.<br /> <br />Conclusion<br />Albert Einstein was very much influenced by the Buddhist doctrines related to the concepts of absence of any Creator God, absence of any soul or self (anatta), Dependent Origination (paticcasamuppada), impermanence (anicca) and the emphasis on practicing compassion with moral-driven, volitional activities (kamma).1,13 He had also predicted that the religion of the future will be a “cosmic religion”. It would transcend personal God and avoid dogma and theology. Covering both the natural and the spiritual, it should be based on a religious sense arising from the experience of all things natural and spiritual as a meaningful unity. In his opinion, Buddhism answers this description. Buddhism has the characteristics of what would be expected in a cosmic religion for the future: It transcends a personal God, avoids dogmas and theology; it covers both the natural and spiritual; and it is based on a religious sense aspiring from the experience of all things, natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity. So, “if there is any religion that would cope with modern scientific needs, it would be Buddhism”.13<br /><br /><br /><br /> <br />References <br /><br />1. Jammer, Max. 1999. Einstein and religion: physics and theology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <br />2. Wallace,B.A., ed., 2003. Buddhism & science: breaking new ground. New York: Columbia University Press.<br />3. Wallace, B.A.1996. Choosing Reality: A Buddhist View of Physics and the Mind. Ithaca, N.Y.: Snow Lion Publications: 18-27.<br />4. Bodhi, B., ed. 1993. A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma (the annotated translation of Abhidhammatthasangaha of Acariya Anuruddha). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.<br />5. Lopez, Donald S. 2005. Critical terms for the study of Buddhism. Buddhism and modernity. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. <br />6. Bharucha, Filita P. 1992. Buddhist theory of causation and Einstein's theory of relativity. Delhi, India: Sri Satguru Publications. <br />7. Lopez, D.S. 2008. Buddhism & science: A guide for the perplexed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.<br />8. Karunadasa, Y. 1996. The Dhamma Theory: Philosophical Cornerstone of the Abhidhamma. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. <br />9. Karunadasa, Y. 1989. Buddhist Analysis of Matter (Second Edition). Singapore: Buddhist Research Society.<br />10. Richard M., Thuan,T.X. 2001. The Quantum and the Lotus: A Journey to the Frontiers Where Science and Buddhism Meet. New York: Crown Publishers: 127-39.<br />11. Einstein, A., 1931. The world as I see it. Forum and Century: Living Philosophies 84: 193-4.<br />12. Kloetzli, W.R. 1983. Buddhist Cosmology: From Single World System to Pure Land: Science and Theology in the Images of Motion and Light. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.<br />13. Dukas, H., Hoffman B., ed., 1954. Albert Einstein: The Human Side. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ankurbarua26http://www.blogger.com/profile/11323818878981377719noreply@blogger.com0